• Bit rate

• Baud rate

• Goal in data communication is to increase the bit rate while decreasing

the baud rate. Increasing the data rate increases the speed of
transmission, decreasing the baud rate decreases the bandwidth
requirement.
Figure 5-1

Different Conversion Schemes

Figure 5-2

Digital to Digital Encoding

Figure 5-3

Types of Digital to Digital Encoding

Figure 5-4

Unipolar Encoding
Figure 5-5

Types of Polar Encoding

 Polar schemes
• The voltages are on both side of the time axis.

• NRZ (non return to zero)

• NRZ-L : The level of the voltage determines the value of bit.

• NRZ-I : the change in the level of the voltage determines the level of the
bit. If there is no change, the bit is 0, if there is a change, the bit is 1.
Figure 5-6
NRZ-L and NRZ-I Encoding
Figure 5-7

RZ Encoding
 Return to zero
• It uses three values: positive, negative and zero.
• The signal changes not between bits but during the bit. The signal goes to
zero in the middle of each bit.

• The main disadvantage is that it requires two signal changes to encode a

bit and therefore occupies greater bandwidth.

• Another problem is its complexity.

Figure 5-8
Manchester and Diff. Manchester Encoding
• Manchester encoding : the duration of bits is divided into two halves. The
voltage remains at one level during the first half and moves to the other
level in the second bit.

• A negative to positive transition represents binary 1 and a positive to

negative transition represents binary 0.
 Digital to Analog Conversion
• Digital data needs to be carried on an analog signal.

• A carrier signal (frequency fc) performs the function of transporting

the digital data in an analog waveform.

• The analog carrier signal is manipulated to uniquely identify the

digital data being carried.

5.13
Figure 5.1 Digital-to-analog conversion

5.14
Figure 5.2 Types of digital-to-analog conversion

5.15
Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics
of an analog signal based on the information in digital data.

5.16
• A wave is defined by three characteristics: amplitude, frequency, and phase.

• When we vary anyone of these characteristics, we create a different version of that wave. So,
by changing one characteristic of a simple electric signal, we can use it to represent digital
data.

• Any of the three characteristics can be altered in this way, giving us at least three mechanisms
for modulating digital data into an analog signal:

• amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying
• (PSK).

• In addition, there is a fourth (and better) mechanism that combines changing both the
amplitude and phase, called quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).

• QAM is the most efficient of these options and is the mechanism commonly used today

5.17
• Data element (bit, byte)
• Signal element
• Data rate
• Signal rate

5.18
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
• ASK is implemented by changing the amplitude of a carrier signal to
reflect amplitude levels in the digital signal.

• For example: a digital “1” could not affect the signal, whereas a digital
“0” would, by making it zero.

• The line encoding will determine the values of the analog waveform
to reflect the digital data being carried.

5.19
Figure 5.3 Binary amplitude shift keying

5.20
Figure 5.4 Implementation of binary ASK

5.21
 Frequency Shift Keying
• The digital data stream changes the frequency of the carrier signal, fc.

• For example, a “1” could be represented by f1=fc +f, and a “0” could
be represented by f2=fc-f.

5.22
Figure 5.6 Binary frequency shift keying

5.23
 Phase Shift Keyeing
• We vary the phase shift of the carrier signal to represent digital data.

• PSK is much more robust than ASK as it is not that vulnerable to

noise, which changes amplitude of the signal.

5.24
Figure 5.9 Binary phase shift keying

5.25
 Quadrature PSK

• To increase the bit rate, we can code 2 or more bits onto one signal
element.

• In QPSK, we parallelize the bit stream so that every two incoming bits
are split up and PSK a carrier frequency. One carrier frequency is
phase shifted 90o from the other - in quadrature.

• The two PSKed signals are then added to produce one of 4 signal
elements. L = 4 here.

5.26
Figure 5.11 QPSK and its implementation

5.27
Note

Quadrature amplitude modulation is a

combination of ASK and PSK.

5.28
5.29
Figure 8-1
Multiplexing vs. No Multiplexing

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

• Multiplexing is the set of techniques
that allows the simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals across a single data link.
As data and telecommunications use
increases, so does traffic.
• We can accommodate this increase by
continuing to add individual links each time a
new channel is needed; or we can install
higher-bandwidth links

5.31
Figure 8-3

FDM

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
is an analog technique that can be
applied when the bandwidth of a link (in
hertz) is greater than the combined
bandwidths of the signals to be
transmitted.

5.33
Figure 8-4
FDM, Time Domain

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 8-6
Demultiplexing, Time Domain

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 8-5
Multiplexing, Frequency Domain

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 8-7
Demultiplexing, Frequency Domain

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Assume that a voice channel occupies a
bandwidth of 4 kHz. We need to combine
three voice channels into a link with a
bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz.
Show the configuration, using the
frequency domain.
Five channels, each with a l00-kHz
bandwidth, are to be multiplexed
together. What is the minimum
bandwidth of the link if there is a need
for a guard band of 10kHz between the
channels to prevent interference?
• A very common application of FDM is AM and FM radio broadcasting.

• Radio uses the air as the transmission medium.

• Each station uses a different carrier frequency, which means it is shifting

its signal and multiplexing.

• The signal that goes to the air is a combination of signals.

• A receiver receives all these signals, but filters only the one which is
desired.

• Without multiplexing, only one AM station could broadcast to the common

link, the air. 5.43
 WDM
• WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the
multiplexing and de-multiplexing involve optical signals
transmitted through fiber-optic channels.
• The idea is the same: We are combining different signals of
different frequencies
• Although WDM technology is very complex, the basic idea is very
simple.
• We want to combine multiple light sources into one single light
at the multiplexer and do the reverse at the de-multiplexer. The
combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a
prism.
Figure 8-8
TDM

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

• Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several
connections to share the high bandwidth of a line Instead of sharing a
portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared.

• Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.

• TDM is, in principle, a digital multiplexing technique.

• Digital data from different sources are combined into one timeshared link.

• However, this does not mean that the sources cannot produce analog
data; analog data can be sampled, changed to digital data, and then
multiplexed by using TDM.

5.48
Figure 8-9
Synchronous TDM

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 8-10
TDM, Multiplexing

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Figure 8-11
TDM, Demultiplexing

WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

 Interleaving

• TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches, one on the

multiplexing side and the other on the de-multiplexing side.

• The switches are synchronized and rotate at the same speed, but in
opposite directions.

• On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection,

that connection has the opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This
process is called interleaving.

• On the de-multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a

connection, that connection has the opportunity to receive a unit from
the path.
Statistical TDM