PHILOSOPHY OF POLITICS

4TH PROBLEM: PROBLEMS REGARDING PHILOSOPHY OF SOCIETY & POLITICS

Aristotle  “The man is a social and political animal”

o We live with other people & concerned with other people & responsibilities
o toward other people

o Political & Social Philosophy: the study of people in societies

o Concepts of rights, duties, privileges, justice, equality & freedom

o The rel. btw. indiviual & society/state

What is the source of authority?

What are the structures of the state?
What is the best political system?
What are the responsibilities of the goverment/citizens?
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 PHILOSOPHY OF POLITICS
o Successful society  cooperation.

o When people do not cooperate  the success of society requires some authority (state)

o The state  laws & enforcement of laws (protect the public interest)
protect individual rights (against powerful corporations & pressure groups)
Protect justice

o Disagreement: how much emphasis on the public interest & on individual rights/
interests?

o Disagreement: the concept of justice

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 PHILOSOPHY OF POLITICS
o Authoritarians: emphasis on workings of society
sacrifice most individual rights and interests;
confidence in authoritarian state.
E.g. fascist Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler & Italian dictator Benito Mussolini.

o Anarchists: confidence in individual cooperation & little confidence in the state

the state should be eliminated altogether. (it is the state causing disorder)
(human nature is good)
E.g. Mikhail Bakunin & William Godwin

o Democrats & Republicans: a government s at least partially run by the people

themselves but with sufficient power to enforce its laws over individual interests
whenever necessary.

the problem of a balance btw. the public interest (the need for cooperation) &
individual rights and interests 3
 PROBLEM OF JUSTICE
o Justice  we first think of criminal cases & of punishment.
o (catch the criminal & "making him pay ." )

o Retributive Justice: The oldest understanding of the justice ("getting even.")

o making the criminal suffer or pay an amount appropriate to the severity of the crime.

o "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth."

E.g : If a criminal caused a person to be blind, he was in turn blinded.

( as brutal & less than civilized)

Do we punish our criminals (that is, demand retribution), or

do we sincerely attempt to reform them?

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 PROBLEM OF JUSTICE
o Distributive Justice: Given the relative scarcity of wealth and goods, how should they be
distributed
o Should everyone receive exactly the same amount?
o Should the person who works hard at an unpleasant job receive more than the person
who refuses to work at all and prefers to watch TV all day ?

o Distribution of privileges and power are equally important.

o Who will vote? Will everyone's vote count exactly the same?
o Should the opinions of an illiterate have as much say as the political scientist or
economist ?
o Should there be social classes?
o All of these are the concerns of justice. But what is just? Who decides? And how?

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 PROBLEM OF JUSTICE
o Early Theories of Justice : Aristotle (POLITICS)
o Defended hierarchical society & ind.s should be treated acc.to their
states & position in the society
E.g. slavery  efiicient & good for society as a whole
naturally meant to be slaves (by nature)
would be unhappy & can not cope when freed

o Aristotle (POLITICS)  distributive justice ( division of both material & social goods)

o Justice ; lawfulness (distinguishes just constitutions from unjust constitutions)

(societal level)

o Justice ; treat equal people equally & unequal people unequally

(individual level)
(E. g. morons, children & foreigners can not be treated as the same as citizens).
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 PROBLEM OF JUSTICE
o Justice  rational mean btw. extremes.  (GOLDEN MEAN)

unfairly getting “more” at another’s expense

o Proportional equality
unfairly getting “less” at one’s expense

o Ind.s should be rewarded acc. to their labor & contribution to society

(Contempary view of distribution of goods )

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 PROBLEM OF JUSTICE
o Aristotle  justice requires that social/material benefits should be distributed to ind.s
depending on their merits

o Oligarshy : Mistakenly believes that those who are superior in wealth should have
superior political rights & certain previliges
(not a business enterprise that maximizes wealth)
o Democracy : Mistakenly believe that those who are equal in free birth shoud also have
equal political rights
(not a association to promote liberty & equality)

o Aim of the state  end (ultimate) as happiness

(provide citizens to a life consistent of noble actions/life virtues are practiced)

o Correct Justice  Aristocratic (highest of virtues)

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 PROBLEM OF JUSTICE

o Aristocracy: political rights should be assigned to people who contribute

fully to society (to those who posses virtue)

o Aristocracy: Aristoi (best persons)

o The state should be governed by & political previliges should be given

to these best persons

middle class

Oligarchy (ruled by rich)

Aristocracy
(GOLDEN MEAN) Democracy (ruled by poor)

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 PROBLEM OF JUSTICE
o Aristotle & Platon  critics of democracy (may return into tyranny of majority)

o Majority as ordinary people  ignorant & lack political wisdom

o (not familiar with the concepts of economy, military, strategy, law & ethics

o Rhetorics: art of speaking & influencing other people ( not mean can rule other people)

“ they inevitably find themselves at the mercy of administrations & conditions over which
they have no control over because they do not understand what is happening around
them”
Degenaration:

Aristocracy  Timocracy  Oligarcy  Democracy  Tyranny

Theory of justice (JUST STATE)  required by the poorer & less powerful
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 PROBLEM OF JUSTICE
o Early Theories of Justice : Platon (REBUPLIC; BC. 375)
o Platon  Socratic dialogue; concerning justice (just city-state & the just man).

o Justice: to do one’s own business and not to be a busybody is justice.” 


fulfilling one’s proper role – realizing one’s potential &
not overstepping it by doing what is contrary to one’s nature.
(for both just state & the just individual) 

o Each individual  set of duties, a set of obligations to the community

(harmonious whole/state )

o Nature  a hierarchy & in a cosmic harmony,

o State  is hierarchical & individuals placed in the social hierarchy & in harmony

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 PROBLEM OF JUSTICE
o Early Theories of Justice : Platon (REBUPLIC; BC. 375)
o Individual soul  hierarchical & parts; own function to fulfill

the rational part >spirited part > appetitive part

(should be harmonious & not in conflict with itself)

(knows his place & his aptitudes & guided by reason, does everything in moderation)

o the ideal (just) person : philosopher, soul in complete harmony with itself.


rational faculty governs passions & appetites (not ruled by them; still respect them)
has knowledge of himself & society;
knows to be virtuous; never loses control over himself.
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 PROBLEM OF JUSTICE
o the ideal (just) state : the rulers > the soldiers/guardians> producers (hierarchical)
(should be harmonious & not in conflict with itself)

(know their places & their functions & guided by reason)
(kallipolis)

o Producers (appetitive part): lowest & largest class; all professions other than warrior
and rulers ( farmers, artisans, merchants, doctors, artists, actors, lawyers, judges etc.)
o satisfy the basic needs of the society & produce material goods & services
o no share in ruling, obey the rulers
o can marry & may have possessions & property

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 PROBLEM OF JUSTICE
o Auxiliary Guardians/Soldiers(spirit part): defense of the city against enemies
o should have the virtue of courage (willingness to carry out orders in the face of danger
o raised according to rigorous program (physical fitness, honor & wisdom)
o can not have money, possesions & live communally
o separated from their children/family at an early age (to prevent family ties )

o Rulers/Guardians (rational part): responsible for making decisions, govern the state
o Should have virtue of wisdom
o Should be able to comprehend the reality
o Education physical training, mathematics, dialectics & philosophy
o Philosophers / Philosopher Kings  Knowledge of Forms
o can not marry, have a children, no possession

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 SOCIAL CONTRACT

o The Social Contract Theory : Most important conception of justice in modern times
o origins of the society & legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual
o Justification of the state & authority

o Social Contract: the agreement among people to share certain interests & make certain
compromises for the good of them all.

o Ind.s have consented (explicitly / tacitly) to sacrifice some of their freedoms, submit to
the authority of the ruler/majority in exchange for protection & remaining rights
(not need to be an actual physical contract; simply living in a society)

o Theorists of social contract;

- Thomas Hobbes (1651)
- John Locke (1689)
- Jean Jacques Rousseau (1762)
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 SOCIAL CONTRACT

o Thomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679) : English philosopher (LEVIATHAN)

o State of nature: humans before signing the social contract

lives solitary, poor, nasty, brutish & short

o Self-interest & absence of rights  chaos (no laws & no authority)

(resources are limited)

o Hobbes  Human nature  not good, selfish beast

(fighting for his own interests)

“ A war of all against all”

o Dismission of reason, appeal to passions & desires

o Social Contract  agreement to not to commit murder
o Men are equal 16
 SOCIAL CONTRACT

o State of nature  every person in the fear of losing his life

(the weakest can kill the strongest by trick/cooperation)

o Hobbes  humans should aim to protect their lives & avoid death
(worst possible situation; never-ending war)

o Men  also reasonable & rational

o Social Contract  to escape from the state of nature

create a civil society
transfer of rights
agree to live under common laws

o To protect their lives, they freely choose to submit to an authority/sovereign

o Sovereign  absolute authority & (Monarchy/authoritative state/ rule of the king )
o Cannot be questioned; absolute power given to the king, so no right to revolt against
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 SOCIAL CONTRACT

o John Locke (1632-1704) : different conceptualization of state of nature

o Two Treatises on Goverment;
- 1st  refuting the argument of Patriarcha (Robert Filmer); political authority  religious authority
- 2nd   aims & justification for civil government
(An Essay Concerning the True Original Extent and End of Civil Government”)

o State of Nature  state of perfect & complete liberty without interference

( one is not free to do anything)
not a state without morality
pre-political/not pre-moral

o Ind.s not harm others with regards to their “life, health, liberty” (Law of Nature by God)

o Not a condition of individuals; mothers & fathers with their children/ families

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 SOCIAL CONTRACT

o State of war  over property disputes.

“Begins btw. two/more men once one man declares war on another, by stealing from
him, or by trying to make him his slave”.

o No civil power to appeal  the Law of Nature allows to defend their lives (kill others)
o War begins & likely to continue  abandon the State of Nature & form civil government.

o Importance of private property !

o Political society  ind.s come together & agree to give up the executive power
o punish the transgressors the Law of Nature & hand over that power to the government. 

o Authority of civil government (King)  provide protection of the people’s

property and well-being (can be questioned )
o Tyranny  ind.s have right to resist his authority & revolution
o The social contract dissolves & the process to create political society begins again 19
 SOCIAL CONTRACT

o Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): pioneer of Intellectual Movement; Enlightenment

“ Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality Among Men”

o Historical process ; State of Nature  progression into civil society.

o The State of Nature  peaceful & quixotic

solitary & uncomplicated
few needs satisfied by nature.
small population, no competetion, no conflict
emotion of pitty; not harm another
come together for sexual intercourse

o Time passes (Changes)  increased population & living together in small

families/communities
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 SOCIAL CONTRACT

o Divisions of labor  leisure time (comparisions; envy, pride & contempt)

o Invention of private property  greed, competition, vanity, inequality & vice.
Inequalities  Some have property & others are forced to work for them
the development of social classes

o People with property  in their interests to create a government

that would protect private property.

o Social Contract  establishment of government

appereantly to guarantee equality & protection for all

o True purpose  retain the very inequalities & keep interests of the few who have
become stronger and richer as a result of private property.
o Responsible for the conflict and competition from which modern society suffers.
“Man was born free, and he is everywhere in chains” 
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 SOCIAL CONTRACT

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 MARXISM

o Owner of means of production  the bourgeoisie/capitalist class (capital goods)

o Hiearchical Societal Class  the proletariat/working class, (slave)

vs.
the bourgeoisie/capitalist class (master)

o Two class in conflict with each other (dialectic way; thesis vs. antithesis)

o Eventually there would be no societal classes  Marxist Society

o Alienation: social alienation  enstragement from human nature as a consequence of

living in a society of stratified social classes.(being a mechanistic part of a social class)

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 MARXISM

o Marx  alienation results from the use of labor

o In the capitalist society  majority of the humans do not work to produce, but to survive.
- The worker invariably loses the ability to determine life and destiny
- can not think of themselves as the director of their own actions;
- can not own those items of value from goods & services, produced by their own labour.

o The worker has into an economic entity this worker by the bourgeoisie to attain highest
level of profit.

o Communist Revolution: proletarian revolution

o Workers world must unite and free themselves from capitalist oppression 
o Classless Communist Society

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