Formal Versus Informal Logic

Deductive Versus Inductive

Forms of Reasoning
 Two basic categories
of human reasoning

• Deduction: reasoning from general premises, which are

known or presumed to be known, to more specific, certain
conclusions.
• Induction: reasoning from specific cases to more
general, but uncertain, conclusions.

• Both deductive and inductive arguments occur frequently

and naturally…both forms of reasoning can be equally
compelling and persuasive, and neither form is preferred
over the other (Hollihan & Baske, 1994).
Deduction Vs. Induction

Deduction: Induction
• commonly associated • commonly known as
with “formal logic.” “informal logic,” or
• involves reasoning “everyday argument”
from known premises,• involves drawing
or premises presumed uncertain inferences,
to be true, to a certain based on probabalistic
conclusion. reasoning.
• the conclusions • the conclusions
reached are certain, reached are probable,
inevitable, reasonable, plausible,
inescapable. believable.
Deductive Versus
Inductive Reasoning
Deduction
• It is the form or structure
of a deductive argument
that determines its validity
• the fundamental property
of a valid, deductive
argument is that if the
premises are true, then
the conclusion necessarily
follows.
• The conclusion is said to
be “entailed” in, or
contained in, the premises.
– example: use of DNA
testing to establish
paternity
Induction
• By contrast, the form or
structure of an inductive
argument has little to do with
its perceived believability or
credibility, apart from making
the argument seem more
clear or more well-
organized.
• The receiver (or a 3rd party)
determines the worth of an
inductive argument
Sample Deductive and Inductive Arguments

Example of Example of
Deduction Induction
• major premise: All • Boss to employee:
tortoises are “Biff has a tattoo of an
anchor on his arm. He
vegetarians probably served in the
• minor premise: Navy.”
Bessie is a tortoise
• conclusion:
Therefore, Bessie
is a vegetarian
sample “Venn diagram”
of a deductive argument

vegetarian animals tortoises

All tortoises Thus, Bessie
fall in the must be a
circle of vegetarian
animals that
are
vegetarians

Bessie falls into the circle

of animals that are
tortoises
Bessie
Deduction Versus Induction
---continued
• Deductive reasoning is
either “valid” or “invalid.”
A deductive argument
can’t be “sort of” valid.
• If the reasoning
employed in an
argument is valid and
the argument’s
premises are true, then
the argument is said to
be sound.
valid reasoning +
true premises =
sound argument
fallacious
• Inductive reasoning
enjoys a wide range of
probability; it can be
plausible, possible,
reasonable, credible,
etc.
• the inferences drawn
may be placed on a
continuum ranging from
cogent at one end to
fallacious at the other.
cogent
Deduction Versus Induction
--still more
• Deductive reasoning is
commonly found in the
natural sciences or “hard”
sciences, less so in
everyday arguments
• Occasionally, everyday
arguments do involve
deductive reasoning:
Example: “Two or more
persons are required to
drive in the diamond lane.
You don’t have two or
more persons. Therefore
you may not drive in the
diamond lane”
• Inductive reasoning is
found in the courtroom,
the boardroom, the
classroom, and
throughout the media
• Most, but not all everyday
arguments are based on
induction
– Examples: The
“reasonable person”
standard in civil law, and
the “beyond a
reasonable doubt”
standard in criminal law