Introduction to

Philosophy and
Arguments
Argument
In philosophy and logic, an argument is a series of statements
typically used to persuade someone of something or to present
reasons for accepting a conclusion. The general form of an
argument in a natural language is that of premises (typically in
the form of propositions, statements or sentences) in support of
a claim: the conclusion. The structure of some arguments can
also be set out in a formal language, and formally defined
"arguments" can be made independently of natural language
arguments, as in math, logic, and computer science.
Argument
In a typical deductive argument, the premises guarantee the
truth of the conclusion, while in an inductive argument, they are
thought to provide reasons supporting the
conclusion's probable truth. The standards for evaluating non-
deductive arguments may rest on different or additional criteria
than truth, for example, the persuasiveness of so-called
"indispensability claims" in transcendental arguments, the quality
of hypotheses in retroduction, or even the disclosure of new
possibilities for thinking and acting.
Argument
The standards and criteria used in evaluating arguments and
their forms of reasoning are studied in logic. Ways of formulating
arguments effectively are studied in rhetoric (see also:
argumentation theory). An argument in a formal language shows
the logical form of the symbolically represented or natural
language arguments obtained by its interpretations.
Formal and Informal

Informal arguments as studied in informal logic, are presented in

ordinary language and are intended for everyday discourse. Conversely,
formal arguments are studied in formal logic (historically called symbolic
logic, more commonly referred to as mathematical logic today) and are
expressed in a formal language. Informal logic may be said to emphasize
the study of argumentation, whereas formal logic emphasizes implication
and inference. Informal arguments are sometimes implicit. That is, the
rational structure – the relationship of claims, premises, warrants,
relations of implication, and conclusion – is not always spelled out and
immediately visible and must sometimes be made explicit by analysis.
Standard types

There are several kinds of arguments in logic, the best-known

of which are "deductive" and "inductive." An argument has one
or more premises but only one conclusion. Each premise and the
conclusion are truth bearers or "truth-candidates", each capable
of being either true or false (but not both). These truth values
bear on the terminology used with arguments.
Deductive Arguments
• A deductive argument asserts that the truth of the conclusion is
a logical consequence of the premises. Based on the premises,
the conclusion follows necessarily (with certainty). For example,
given premises that A=B and B=C, then the conclusion follows
necessarily that A=C. Deductive arguments are sometimes
referred to as "truth-preserving" arguments.
Deductive Arguments
• A deductive argument is said to be valid or invalid. If
one assumes the premises to be true (ignoring their actual truth
values), would the conclusion follow with certainty? If yes, the
argument is valid. Otherwise, it is invalid. In determining validity,
the structure of the argument is essential to the determination,
not the actual truth values. For example, consider the argument
that because bats can fly (premise=true), and all flying creatures
are birds (premise=false), therefore bats are birds
(conclusion=false). If we assume the premises are true, the
conclusion follows necessarily, and thus it is a valid argument.
Deductive Arguments

• If a deductive argument is valid and its premises are all true,

then it is also referred to as sound. Otherwise, it is unsound, as
in the "bats are birds" example.
Inductive arguments

• An inductive argument, on the other hand, asserts that the

truth of the conclusion is supported to some degree of
probability by the premises. For example, given that the U.S.
military budget is the largest in the world (premise=true), then
it is probable that it will remain so for the next 10 years
(conclusion=true). Arguments that involve predictions are
inductive, as the future is uncertain.
Inductive arguments

• An inductive argument is said to be strong or weak. If the

premises of an inductive argument are assumed true, is it
probable the conclusion is also true? If so, the argument is
strong. Otherwise, it is weak.
• A strong argument is said to be cogent if it has all true
premises. Otherwise, the argument is uncogent. The military
budget argument example above is a strong, cogent argument.
Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning is a type of deduction used in science and in life. It is
when you take two true statements, or premises, to form a conclusion. For
example, A is equal to B. B is also equal to C. Given those two statements,
you can conclude A is equal to C using deductive reasoning.
Now, let’s look at a real-life example.
All dolphins are mammals.
All mammals have kidneys.
Using deductive reasoning, you can conclude that all dolphins have kidneys.
Remember, for this to work, both statements must be true. Okay, now that
you have a good grasp on it, try a few examples.
Examples of Deductive Reasoning

Everyday life often tests our powers of deductive reasoning. Did you ever
wonder when you'd need what you learned in algebra class?

Well, if nothing else, those lessons were meant to stretch our powers of
deductive reasoning. Remember, if a = b and b = c, then a = c. Let's flesh
that out with added examples:
• All birds have feathers. All robins are birds. Therefore, robins have
feathers
• All cats have a keen sense of smell. Fluffy is a cat, so Fluffy has a keen
sense of smell.
Inductive Reasoning
The term inductive reasoning refers to reasoning that takes specific
information and makes a broader generalization that's considered
probable while still remaining open to the fact that the conclusion may not
be 100% guaranteed.

In other words, you're making an educated or informed guess based

on the information or data that you have. It might sound right, but that
doesn't mean it is right. Together, let's explore some examples of
inductive reasoning. You'll quickly see what it's all about.
Examples of Inductive Reasoning
To get a better idea of inductive logic, view a few different examples.
See if you can tell what type of inductive reasoning is at play.
• The chair in the living room is red. The chair in the dining room is red.
The chair in the bedroom is red. All the chairs in the house are red.
• The chair in the living room is red. The chair in the dining room is red.
The chair in the bedroom is red. All the chairs in the house are red .