CHAPTER 2: GAUSS’S LAW

 23.6. Electric Field Lines

- The electric field vector is tangent to the electric field line
at each point. The line has a direction, indicated by an
arrowhead, that is the same as that of the electric field
vector. The direction of the line is that of the force on a
positive charge placed in the field according to the particle
in a field model.
- The number of lines per unit area through a surface
perpendicular to the lines is proportional to the magnitude
of the electric field in that region. Therefore, the field lines
are close together where the electric field is strong and far
apart where the field is weak.
- The rules for drawing electric field lines are as follows:
+ The lines must begin on a positive charge and terminate
on a negative charge. In the case of an excess of one type of
charge, some lines will begin or end infinitely far away.
+ The number of lines drawn leaving a positive charge or
approaching a negative charge is proportional to the
magnitude of the charge.
+ No two field lines can cross.
 CHAPTER 2: GAUSS’S LAW
23.6. Electric Field Lines
 CHAPTER 2: GAUSS’S LAW
 24.1. Electric Flux A
- The electric flux : the number of field lines penetrating a
surface
a/ Uniform electric field
- For a surface of area A perpendicular to :

+ The unit of :
- For a surface of area A not perpendicular to :

where is the angle between and , is the component of

normal to the surface and is the surface vector.  𝐴
⃗
b/ Non-uniform electric field over a large surface
𝑛
 ⃗
- Divide the surface into a large number of small elements,
each of area
- The flux through the element :
∆  ⃗
𝐴𝑖
(The electric field at the location of the element makes an
angle with the vector )
 CHAPTER 2: GAUSS’S LAW
 24.1. Electric Flux
b/ Non-uniform electric field over a large surface
- The total f lux through the surface:

 - If  0, the total f lux through the surface:

c/ The flux through a closed surface

- We always choose the unit vector to be out of the
surface at each n point.
- The net flux through a closed surface ~ the net
number of lines leaving the surface (the number of
lines leaving the surface minus the number of lines
entering the surface):
 CHAPTER 2: GAUSS’S LAW
 24.2. Gauss’s Law
a/ A point charge
- The net flux through a spherical surface with the center
at the location of a point charge q:

- The flux is proportional to the number of electric field

lines passing through a surface.  The net flux through
the spherical surface is equal to that through the non-
spherical surfaces and.

 The net flux through any closed

surface (Gaussian surface)
surrounding a point charge q is
given by q/ and is independent
of the shape of that surface.
 CHAPTER 2: GAUSS’S LAW
24.2. Gauss’s Law
b/ A system of point charges and continuous distribution of charge
 - The net flux through any closed surface (Gaussian
surface):

where represents the electric field at any point on

the surface and represents the net charge inside the
surface.
- Although the charge is the net charge inside the
Gaussian surface, represents the total electric field,
which includes contributions from charges both
inside and outside the surface.
 CHAPTER 2: GAUSS’S LAW
24.3. Charge Distributions Application of Gauss’s Law to Various
 * Choosing gaussian surface
1. The value of the electric field can be argued by symmetry to be constant over the
portion of the surface.
2. The dot product in Equation 24.8 can be expressed as a simple algebraic product
because // .
3. The dot product in Equation 24.8 is zero because  .
4. The electric field is zero over the portion of the surface.

 a/ A Spherically Symmetric Charge Distribution

- The electric field at a point outside the sphere:
+ Conditions (1) & (2) is satisfied every where on the
gaussian surface  = . Apply Gauss’s law:
 CHAPTER 2: GAUSS’S LAW
24.3. Charge Distributions Application of Gauss’s Law to Various
 - The electric field at a point inside the sphere:
+ Conditions (1) & (2) are satisfied every where on the gaussian surface
+ Apply Gauss’s law:
 CHAPTER 2: GAUSS’S LAW
24.3. Charge Distributions Application of Gauss’s Law to Various
 b/ A Cylindrically Symmetric Charge
Distribution
- Apply Gauss’s law, conditions (1) and (2) for
the curved surface and condition (3) for end
surfaces, noting that the total charge inside
our gaussian surface is :

  A Plane of Charge
c/
- For the flat ends of the cylinder, conditions (1) and (2) are
satisfied.
- The flux through each end of the cylinder is . The total flux
through the entire gaussian surface is just that through the
ends, 2EA.
 CHAPTER 2: GAUSS’S LAW
24.4. Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
 - When there is no net motion of charge within a conductor.
- A conductor in electrostatic equilibrium has the following
properties:
+ The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor,
whether the conductor is solid or hollow.
+ If the conductor is isolated and carries a charge, the
charge resides on its surface.
+ The electric field at a point just outside a charged
conductor is perpendicular to the surface of the conductor
and has a magnitude , where is the surface charge density
at that point.
+ On an irregularly shaped conductor, the surface charge
density is greatest at locations where the radius of
curvature of the surface is smallest.
- The time it takes a good conductor to reach equilibrium
when it is placed in an electric field is on the order of s