CODV 201: COMMUNICATION AND

DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS
 COURSE DESCRIPTION

• The course on communication and diffusion of

innovations is organised around a series of lectures
and practicals presenting the concepts of
communication, communication models and
approaches.
• The course will also covers adoption and diffusion
of innovations in different context of human
development
 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
Main key terms will be
I. Innovation
II. Diffusion
III.Communication
IV.Adoption
 Adoption of Innovation

• is the process by which an innovation is communicated

through certain channels over a time among the
members of a social system.

• Adopter do differ on their degree of innovativeness, and

some people accept new innovations earlier while other
take long time to accept the same innovation.
 An Innovation
An innovation is an idea, practice or object perceived
as new by an individual or other unit of adoption.

Therefore, an innovation should not always be new

but it is considered to be new to an individual or
organization adopting it.
 Diffusion
• Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is
communicated through certain channels over time
among the members of a social system.
• It is a special type of communication, in that the
messages are concerned with new ideas.
 Communication
Communication can simply be defined as a process
by which participants create and share information
with one another in order to reach a mutual
understanding or is a process of transfer of
information to achieve a goal.
 Four Main Elements in the Diffusion
of Innovations
The four main elements are the
• Innovation,
• Communication channels
• Time
• The social system
 1. An innovation
An innovation is an idea, practice or object perceived as
new by an individual or other unit of adoption.

Therefore, an innovation should not always be new but it

is considered to be new to an individual or
organization adopting it.
 The Innovation-Development Process
• we defined an innovation as an idea, practice, or object
that is perceived as new to an individual or another
unit of adoption.
• The innovation-development process consists of all of
the decisions, activities, and their impacts that occur
from
i. recognition of a need or Problem ii. through research iii.
development, iv. commercialization of an innovation v.
through diffusion and adoption of the innovation by
users, vi. to its consequences.
 i. Recognizing a Problem or Need
• One of the ways in which the innovation-
development process begins is by recognition
of a problem or need, which stimulates
research and development activities designed
to create an innovation to solve the
problem/need (Figure 4-1).
 2. Basic and Applied Research
• Most innovations that have been investigated in
diffusion researches
have been technological innovations,
• the term "technology" is often used as a synonym for
innovation.
• technology is a design for instrumental action that
reduces the uncertainty in the cause-effect
relationships involved in achieving a desired outcome.
• A technology usually has hardware and software
components. Our definition implies some need or
problem.
 2. Basic and Applied Res cont..
• The tool has
(1) a material aspect (hardware)includes the
equipment and products, etc
(2) a software aspect, consisting of knowledge, skills,
procedures, and/or principles that are an
information base for the tool.
 Basic and Applied Res cont
• Most technological innovations are created by scientific
research activities.
• The knowledge base for a technology usually derives from
basic research, defined as original investigations for the
advancement of scientific knowledge that do not have the
specific objective of applying this knowledge to practical
problems.
• In contrast, applied research consists of scientific
investigations that are intended to solve practical problems.
• Scientific knowledge is put into practice in order to design an
innovation that will solve a perceived need or problem.
Applied researchers are the main users of basic research.
 3. Development
• Development of an innovation is the process of
putting a new idea in a form that is expected to
meet the needs of an audience of potential
adopters.

• This phase customarily occurs after research but

prior to the innovation that stems from research
 4. Commercialization
• Innovations often result from research activities;
they thus represent scientific results packaged in a
form ready to be adopted by users.
• Because such packaging of research results is
usually done by private firms,
• this stage in the technology-development process
is usually called "commercialization.“
• Commercialization is the production,
manufacturing, packaging, marketing, and
distribution of a products.
 5. Diffusion and Adoption
• The most crucial decision in the entire innovation development
process is the decision to begin diffusing the innovation to
potential adopters.
• On the one hand, there is usually pressure to approve an
innovation for diffusion as soon as possible, as the social
problem/need that it seeks to solve may have been given a
high priority.
• Public funds may have been used to sponsor the research and
such
financial support is an unrealized public investment until the
innovation is adopted by users.
• .
 5. Diffusion and Adoption cont…
• On the other hand, the change agency's reputation
and credibility in the eyes of its clients rests on only
recommending innovations that will have beneficial
consequences for their adopters.
• Scientists tend to be cautious when it comes time
to translate their scientific findings into practice
 6. Consequences
• The final phase in the innovation-development
process is the consequences of an innovation.
• Here the original problem/need that began the
entire process either is or is not solved by the
innovation.
• Often new problems/needs may be caused by
the innovation so another cycle of the innovation
development process is set off.
• Further detail on
• the consequences of an innovation is presented
in Chapter 11 page 371
 Adoption of innovation

Adoption is a decision to make full use of an innovation as

the best course of action available.

It is a mental process that goes through a number of mental

stages and which is influenced by several socio-
economic, technological and cultural factors.
 INNOVATION- DECISION PROCESS
This is a process through which an individual or a
decision making unit passes from forming an attitude
toward the innovation, to a decision to adopt or reject it.

A person can adopt an innovation & thereafter decide to

reject it due to some conflicting factors.
 Stages of innovation – decision process
 The process does not always leads to adoption but
also to rejection of an innovation
The stages do not occur in sequences order :some of
stages can be skipped.
Discontinuance of the already adopted innovation or
vice versa
For the purpose of this course, we adopt a Roger’s five
stages model of innovation – decision process.
 Innovation – decision model

According to Rogers, there are five stages of the

innovation- decision process: -
• Knowledge stage
• Persuasion stage
• Decision stage
• Implementation &
• confirmation stage
 Knowledge stage

 At this stage, an individual mainly seeks for general

information, to reduce risks and uncertainty.

 Generally, individuals tend to expose themselves to

innovations that are within their interests, needs and
attitudes which, is called a selective exposure.
 Cont..

A selective exposure is the tendency to attend to

communication messages that are consistent with the
individual’s existing attitudes and beliefs.
An exposure will have little effects unless it is within
individual’s attitudes and beliefs, which is called
selective perception.
 Cont..

Selective perception is therefore the tendency to

interpret communication message in terms of
individual’s existing attitudes and beliefs.
However, sometimes an innovation can also leads to
creation of a new need.
 Persuasion stage
 At this stage an individual forms either a favourable or
unfavourable attitude towards an innovation.
 Individual decisions at this stage are made in
comparison to his/her peer groups: social groups have
an influence on individual decisions.
 Forming a favourable or unfavourable attitude towards
an innovation does not always lead to adoption or
rejection of an innovation (KAP- gap).
 Decision stage
At this stage, an individual engages in activities that lead
to a choice to adopt or reject an innovation. Some
individuals try an innovation on small-scale bases as part
of their decision to adopt it.
 The use of demonstrations, enable those individuals to
learn and thereafter make their cost-benefit analysis of
the innovation before trying to their own conditions.
 Implementation stage
At this stage an individual puts an innovation into use. At
this stage an individual wants technical information.

 This stage ends when a practice becomes part of an

individual’s practices (routine).

 Re- invention stage

This is the degree to which an innovation is changed or

modified by a user in the process of its adoption and
implementation.
 Factors influencing re-invention
Complexity of an innovation influence re- invention to
simplifying the innovation
Ignorance or inadequate knowledge

Wholeness or un wholeness of an innovation

(Divisibility of an innovation)
 Cont..

A wide application of an innovation in solving different

user’s problems
Heterogeneity of individuals and organizational problems
with which the innovation is matched influence re-
invention of an innovation
Local pride of ownership of an innovation where as an
innovation is modified to be a local product.
 Confirmation stage
At this stage of the innovation-decision process, an
individual seeks reinforcement of the decision or reversal
of a previous decision to adopt or reject the innovation.
 At this stage, the individual confirm either to adopt or
reject the innovation based on its performance.
At this stage also, an individual seeks information to
reduce or eliminate uncomfortable states of mind
concerning the innovation.
 
Innovation – decision process
 Decision making unit that affects adoption of an
innovation
1. Knowledge and education level

2. Age of the adopter

3. Attitude towards a changing agent

4. People’s perceptions of opportunity cost

5. People’s believes, norms, values e.t.c

 Characteristics of an innovation that affects its
adoptability

Relative advantages

Compatibility

Complexity

Trialability/divisibility

Observability

Irreversibility
 Relative advantages
This refers to the degree to which a new innovation is
perceived as better than the previously adopted
innovation(s).

The innovation with more relative advantages in terms

of economic profitability, social prestige e.t.c are more
likely to be adopted quickly.
 Compatibility
This is the degree to an innovation to be consistent with
their values, traditional/common and their level of
technology.

The greater the compatibility of an innovation to the

traditional alternatives the higher the rate and speed of
adoption and diffusion of innovations.
 Trialability/divisibility
This is the degree to which the an innovation can be
tried on the installments.

An innovation that is divisible can easily be adopted as

it reduces risks associated with the outcomes of the
adoption decision of that an innovation.
 Complexity of an innovation
This refers to the degree to which an innovation is
perceived as difficult to understand and use.

Innovations that are simpler to understand and can easily

be adopted and vice versa.
 Observability

This is the degree to which the results of an innovation

are visible to the potential adopters and to others.
This means that the easier for individual to see and
evaluate the results of adopted innovation, the easier
for their adoption.
 Irreversibility

This is the degree to which the effect of adopted

innovation could be changed to the normal situation
before an adoption
An innovation whose it’s effect can easily be
changed to a normal situation are likely to be
adopted.
 Other socio- economic & cultural factors

1. Time of exposure to a new innovation

2. People’s participation

3. Awareness and intensity of the problem

4. Institutional characteristics
 Cont..

5. Communication media

6. Credibility of the communication media

6. Economic status of the potential adopter

7. Tradition, values and beliefs

 2. COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
• Previously we defined communication as the process by
which participants create and share information with one
another in order to reach a mutual understanding.
• Diffusion is a particular type of communication in which the
information that is exchanged is concerned with new ideas.
• The essence of the diffusion process is the information
exchange by which one individual communicates a new
idea to one or several others.
 The communication Process
Communication is the process of passing
information and understanding from one
person to another.
The communication process involves six basic
elements: sender (encoder), message, channel,
receiver (decoder), noise, and feedback.
 Sender (Encodes)

• The sender initiates the communication process.

• When the sender has decided on a meaning, he or she
encodes a message, and selects a channel for
transmitting the message to a receiver.
• To encode is to put a message into words or images.
The message is the information that the sender wants
to transmit..
 sender
• The medium is the means of communication, such as
print, mass, electrical, and digital.
• As a sender, the supervisor should define the purpose
of the message, construct each message with the
receiver in mind, select the best medium, time each
transmission thoughtfully, and seek feedback.
• Words can be verbal - written and spoken.
 Increasing Encoding Accuracy
Principles
i. Relevancy-make the message meaningful and
significant, carefully selecting the words,
symbols or gesture to be used

i. Simplicity- Put the message in the simplest

possible terms, reducing the number of words,
symbols or gestures used to communicate your
intended thought and feeling
ii. Organization- arrange the message as a series of
points to facilitate understanding. Complete
each points in a message before proceeding to
the next
 Increasing Encoding Accuracy
Principles

iv. Repetition- Restate key points of the message at

least twice. Repetition is particularly important
in spoken communication.
v. Focus- Focus on essential aspects, or key points
of the message. Make the message clear and
avoid unnecessary details.In spoken comm.
Emphasize significant points by changing tone of
voice, pausing…., In written Comm. , underline
or italicize key sentences, phrases, or words.
 Receiver Decodes

• The receiver is the person who receives and decodes

(or interprets) the sender's message
• Decoding- translating encoded messages into a form
that has meaning to the receiver.
• One of the main requirement of the receiver is the
ability to listen
• Listening is paying attention to a message, not
merely hearing it
 Guidelines for effective listening
i. Remember that listening is not just about receiving
information- how you listen also sends message
back to the message sender
ii. Stop talking!You can’t listen if you’re talking
iii. Show a talker that you want to listen. Paraphrase
what’s been said to show that you understand
 Guidelines for effective listening
iv. Remove distractions
v. Avoid pre-judging what the person think or feels.
Listen first, then make judgments later
vi. Try to see other person’s point of view
vii. Listen for total meaning. This includes both the
content of the words and the feeling or attitude
underlying the words
 Guidelines for effective listening
viii.Attend to both verbal and nonverbal
cues
ix. Go easy on argument and criticism,
which put people on defensive or
become angry
x. Before each person leaves, confirm
what has been said
 Message
• The message contains the verbal(spoken and
written) and nonverbal cues representing the
information that the sender wants to convey to the
receiver.
• Nonverbal messages- the use of facial expressions,
movements, body position and physical
contact(often called body language)to convey
meaning
 Verbal Message
• Employee communicate verbally by speaking
and writing.
• Spoken communication takes place face-to-
face and over telephone
• Effective verbal comm. Require 1. Encode the
message in words 2. Convey the message in a
well-organized manner 3. Try to eliminate
distraction
 Channel

The channel is the path a message follows

from the sender to the receiver.
Supervisors use downward channels to send
messages to employees.
Employees use upward channels to send
messages to supervisors.
Horizontal channels are used when
communicating across departmental lines,
with suppliers, or with customers.
 Channel
Informal channel is the grapevine. It exists outside the
formal channels and is used by people to transmit
casual, personal, and social interchanges at work.
The grapevine consists of rumors, gossip, and truthful
information. The supervisor should pay attention to
the grapevine, but should not depend on it for
accurate information.
 Feedback
• . The receiver is the person or group for whom
the communication effort is intended. Noise is
anything that interferes with the communication.
• Feedback ensures that mutual understanding
has taken place in a communication.
• It is the transfer of information from the receiver
back to the sender.
• The receiver decodes or makes out the meaning
of the message. Thus, in the feedback loop, the
receiver becomes the sender and the sender
becomes the receiver.
 Feedback
• It’s the best way to show that a message has
been received and to indicate whether it has
been understood.
• Receiver reaction tell the sender how well
goals being achieved or tasks being
accomplished
 Importance of Informal technology in
the Comm. process
• Information technology increases the speed and
convenience of comm. And information transfer
• These technologies are changing manner in which
employee communicate with each other and make
decision.
• Telephone answering machine( voice mails), fax
machine,teleconferencing, computer to computer
are examples of communication method
 Electronic Mail(e-mail)
• Uses computer text composition and editing to send
and receive written information quickly,
inexpensively, and efficient
• E-mail has become popular with managers because
1.a manager doesn’t have to wait long for a response
because information usually can be sent, returned,
and recalled for a moment 2. Increasing productivity
by eliminating the need for the paper-handling steps
required in traditional interoffice or inter company
system
 continue
• Internet – a loosely configured rapidly
growing web of 25,000 corporate,
educational, and research computers
networks around the world
• Teleconferencing
 Barriers to Effective
Communication
• The 1st step in communicating more effectively is to
identify barriers to the process.
• These barriers hinder the sending and receiving of
message by distorting, or sometimes even
completely blocking, intended meanings.
• Barriers can be organizational and individual
 Barriers to Effective
Communication
Organizational
• Authority and status level
• Specialization of task functions by members
• Different goal
• Status relationships among members
Individual
• Conflicting assumptions
• Semantic
• Emotions
 Organizational
• Authority and status level- the more levels in the
organization- the more difficult effective
communication becomes
• Specialization- As knowledge becomes more
specialized, professionals in many fields develop
their own jargon, or shorthand, to simplify comm.
Among themselves
• Different goals-especially departmental goals
 Individual barriers
Semantics- the study of the way words are used and
the meanings they convey.Misinterpretation of word
meanings can play a large role I communication
failure.
• Emotion-An emotion is subjective reaction or
feeling, an individual recalls not only events but also
the feelings that accompanied them. The receiver's
feelings affect decoding of the message and nature
of the response.
• Emotion- anger, happiness, fear, sadness,surprise!!!
 Overcoming barriers to
communication
• Regulate the flow of information-
• Encourage feedback
• Listen actively
• Restrain negative emotions
• Use nonverbal cues
• Use the grapevine and informal networks
 Guidelines for Effective
communication
• Clarify your ideas before communicating- Analyze the
topic or problem to clarify it in your mind before
sending a message
• Examine the true purpose of the communication
• Consult with others, when appropriate, in planning
communications
• Consider the setting in which the communication will
take place
• Be mindful of the nonverbal message you send
• Take the opportunity to convey something helpful to
the receiver
• Follow up the communication
• Be sure that actions support your communication
 COMMUNICATION CHANNELS cont…

At its most elementary form, the process involves:

i. an innovation,
ii. an individual or other unit of adoption that has
knowledge of, or experience with using, the innovation,
iii. Another individual or other unit that does not yet have
knowledge of the innovation,
iv. And a communication channel connecting the two units. A
communication channel is the means by which messages
get from one individual to another.
 COMMUNICATION CHANNELS cont…
Communication can simply be defined as a process by
which participants create and share information with
one another in order to reach a mutual understanding
or is a process of transfer of information to achieve a
goal.
Communication methods can be categorized into
interpersonal & mass methods.
 Mass communication methods

These are all communications that means of transmitting

messages using mass medium such as radio, TV,
newspapers just to mention a few.

Mass medium of communication enables the reaching of

a large audience and can be used to change the
weakly held attitudes.
 Interpersonal communication
These involve a face to face exchange between two or more
individuals. They include group discussion, role plays,
demonstration etc.

Interpersonal communication methods are more effective in

changing the strongly held attitudes and provide a room
for further clarification or additional information about the
innovation.
 ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Source: originator of information, may be an individual
(speaking, writing, drawing, gesturing e.t.c) or a
communication organization such as a radio, TV e.t.c.

Message: an information in a form of paper, sound waves,

impulse in an electric current, a gesture e.t.c capable of
being interpreted meaningfully.

Encoding: The process of formulating a series of symbols to

express ones experiences & knowledge 77
 ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION cont……..

Channel: A medium of communication or means of

conveying/carrying messages such as radio, film, air, paper, TV
etc.

Receiver: This is the target of the source of the information

(Destination) this may be an individual or a group of people
listening/watching or reading.

Decoding

The process by which the receiver converts impulse (series of

78
symbols) into mental symbols and symbols into meaning.
 ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION cont……..

Sharing: This is when the sender and receiver of the information have
mutual understanding about the sent message.

Feedback: Response to a message, knowledge of the results of the

communication process.

Noise: One’s inability to interpret, understand or respond to message.

This can be due to external interference or the internal perceptions
& experiences that affect communication

79
 Purpose of communication

To create interpersonal understanding

To inform and motivate people

To form and/or maintain relationships

To express our imagination to ourselves and others

To bring changes to communities

80
 Purpose of communicationCont..

 To educate others through sharing information,

developing understanding and strengthening skills
 To implement new concepts and technologies

 To accomplish organization tasks or goals

 To understand typical problems between people and

what causes them

81
 Communication models
communication modules include: -
 Linear communication model

 Exchange communication model

 Contextual communication model

82
 Linear communication model

This is one – way transmission of the message, from the

source to the receiver. Example: the newspapers,
magazine e.t.c MESSAGE
SOURCE RECEIVER
CHANNEL

83
 Exchange communication model
The process in the exchange model is two – ways,
whereby ‘feedback is incorporated into the lineal model.
e.g. telephone
MESSAGE

RECEIVER
SOURCE
CHANNEL

FEEDBACK

84
 Contextual communication model

This model is a progression on the exchange model and

considers the contexts within which communication
process is taking place. (factors influencing
communication).

Note

The context within which communication is taking place has

a great role on influencing the process
85
 Communication Approaches

Communication approaches include: -

 A “do to” communication approach

 A “ do for” communication approach

A “do with”/problem solving communication approach.

86
 A do to communication
Is an approach where individual/a community is told to do
what is considered to be desirable by the changing
agent/organization e.t.c.

It is authoritative in nature and the clients needs and

perceptions are secondary if not considered at all.

87
 A do for communication Approach

A “ do for” communication approach this refers to a

situation whereby a changing agent works for the
individual or the community.

This approach may be appropriate in a situation where

there are acute problems requiring prompt action or in a
situation involving tasks or decisions for which the
clients is not yet responsible or competent to perform.
88
A “ do with” / Problem solving communication approach

This is an approach whereby a changing agent works

hand-in– hand with individual or the community in
solving their problems.

This approach encourages achievement, personal

growth and development.
89
 Factors determining the choice of a communication
approach
 The purpose of the communication

 Urgency of a particular situation

 The level of interest of the audience

 The information needs of the audience

 The communication channels

 The communication skills, outlook/philosophy and personality of the

communicator.
90
 The policies, ethos and strategies of the organization.
 FACTORS INFLUENCING EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATIONS

1. Source factors

2. Receiver factors

3. Message factors

4. Communication context 91
 1.Source factors
a.Quantity of contact
 This refers to frequency and duration of contact between the
source and receiver of the information

b. Quality of contact
 This refers to the values, worthiness and appropriateness of the
contact between the sender and receiver of the message.
 The quality has high influence on communication than the
quantity of contact.
92
 Source factors Cont..

The quality of contact is influenced by: -

i. Credibility of the source, that also depends on:

Competence/qualification of the source

Accessibility of the receivers to the source

Trustworthiness of the source

93
 Source factors cont…

 Dynamism of the source

 Personal k’s of the source e.g tidiness

 Reputation/status of the source to the topic

 Extent of the source influence to the receivers

 Status of the source/organization to the clients

94
 Source factors Cont..

ii. Interest of the source to the clients

iii. Compatibility of the message to that of the community’s /receiver needs

iv. Empathy(the source should put himself/herself into community’s situation)

v. Helping the community to understand their needs, constraints and solution

(s)

vi. Working with opinion leaders

vii. Selection of the best communication method

viii. Selection of the appropriate group for the message.

95
 2. RECEIVER FACTORS
i. Receiver’s attitudes and beliefs towards the
source
ii. Receiver’s perceptions of the source
iii. Receiver’s perception of the message
iv. The situational factors (context) of the
receiver
v. Receiver’s skills of decoding the message
including listening, observing e.t.c
96
 3. MESSAGE FACTORS

 Message factors and how they influence

communication are grouped into sending and receiving
the message.

 This is because messages are misunderstood

because of the poor skills on sending and receiving
messages.
97
 Cont..

Sending message
 Know what to say/write/gesturing

 When the best time to send a message

 Where is the best place to send a message

 Getting feedback if the message is getting through

 Speaking/writing/visualizing your message clearly

 Matching what is said and how it is said – body

language, tone of the voice used. 98
 Receiving the message
Understanding of a message means sharing of a
common understanding of the message. The skills
required in receiving and understanding message:-

i. Actively listening/reading/viewing

ii. Being able to pick the main points/themes

iii.Avoiding jumping to conclusions

99
 How to overcome Communication barriers

 Decide who you are trying to influence

 Learn the present knowledge, belief and behavior of the targeted
population
 Ask if what you want to address has been worked upon: the status

 Investigate the target’s source of information

 Select appropriate channel to reach and influence the targeted population

 Use a right combination of channels/approach

100
 Cont..

 Design a message that can easily be understood,

practical, belief relevant, technically correct and
positive
 Evaluate progress of the communication

 Repeat and adjust the message at regular intervals

101
3. TIME
4. The social system
 DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION
 is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain
channels over a time among the members of a social system.

 Adopter do differ on their degree of innovativeness, and some people

accept new innovations earlier while other take long time to accept the
same innovation.
 Cont..

 Innovativeness is the degree to which an individual or other unit of

adoption is relatively earlier in adopting new ideas than other members
of a social system.

 Therefore, understanding the degree of innovativeness among potential

adopters is of paramount importance to the changing agents.
 Categories of adopters
 Basing on individual’s degree of innovativeness, adopters can be
categorized into are: -
 Innovators

 Early adopters

 Early majority

 Late majority

 Laggards/traditional
 Characteristics of adopters’ categories
 Adopters of innovations can be distinguished basing on their social
aspects, economic, religious and cultural aspects and the way they
communicate with their community members and other members of
other community.
 Innovators
 They are mostly eager to try new ideas

 Control a substantial financial resources and other kind of resources

 Be able to apply complex technical knowledge

 Generally have high level of education

 Cont…

 Be able to cope with high degree of uncertainty about an innovation

 Are mostly cosmopolite

 Their sphere of influence and activity goes beyond their community

boundaries
 Early adopter
 They are mostly localite
 Have high degree of opinion leadership

 Younger than those who have a slower adoption rate

 Have relative higher formal education

 Have a large amount of resources

 Have higher income

 Participate more in the social activities

 Early majority
 Their innovation – decision is relatively longer than that of the innovator and
the early adopter.
 Slightly above average in age, education and experience

 Have medium high social and economic status

 Cont…
 In most cases, they are not formal leaders in their society

 They associate with people of their community

 They are mainly considered as neighbours and friends from whom the
majority of community members seek information.
 Late majority
 These adopt new idea just after the average members of a social
system. They can be persuaded of the utility of new ideas, but the
pressure of peers is necessary to motivate adoption.
 Their characteristics of late majority
 Less education and are older than the early majority

 They form the major part of formal organizational membership

 They take fewer leadership roles and less participation in activities

outside their community
 Laggards/traditionalist
 These are the last to adopt an innovation and posses no opinion
leadership.
 They are mostly localite and many are near isolates.

 These individuals interacts primarily with traditional values.

 Cont..
 They normally adopt innovations that have already been superseded
by other innovation.
 Least education level

 Oldest and low level of income

 Least participation in formal organizations

Roger’s model of diffusion of innovation