sonants

Manner of ariticulation
How does the air goes out from the sides of the
tongue.
 Stops or plosives

Are the consonants while produced there is complete

closure in the oral cavity or glottis .Being so, the air stops for
a while and then flows out with an explosion./p,b,t,d,k,g,m/
 Fricatives

• Are the consonants produced without air being blocked

inside the mouth, there is no explosion happens. Fricatives
are consonants produced with a continuous airflow through
the mouth. They belong to a large class of sounds called
continuants which means in their production there is
continuous noise of air. /f,v,s,z. ʃ,3, θ,ð,h/
 Affricates /tʃ, d3/

• Is considered a complicated speech sound as it consists from

a stop consonant followed by a fricative. in producing
affricates the air stops completely in one of the elements. So
that the aspiration of the second element is slow in
comparison to stops.
 Semivowels /j,w/

• Semivowels are vowel-like consonants: that is, the air-flow is not

stopped or impeded at any point in the mouth so as to cause a friction-
sound, but the passage through which the air flows is smaller than the
passage of any vowel.
• Semi-vowels are described as approximates also because in their
production one of the organs of speech will be very near to another
one but without any kind of contact , therefor no friction happens.
 Nasals

• Nasals consonants are produce when the velum is lowered to

let the airstream escapes through the nasal cavity instead of
mouth./n, ŋ/
 Lateral

• Lateral consonants is formed by letting the airstream passes

around the sides of the tongue and the tip of the tongue
makes contact with middle of the alveolar ridge. The lateral
consonant is described as liquid sounds./l/
• Transcription is a way for representing the pronunciation of
words through symbols.
 Type of symbols transcriptions
• 1- phonetic transcription (narrow). This type of transcription
includes more information and details about the sound, like
diacritics and it should be put between two square brackets.
• Advantages of phonetic transcription. It can help learners to get
exactly the right sounds. At the same time it has disadvantages
which involves a large number of symbols that maybe unfamiliar to
non-native speakers.
• Phonemic transcription (broad):
• It consonants phoneme and should be put between two slashes.
• Aspirated sounds are consonants while produced they accompanied
by forceful explain of air:
• Consonant blends: is two or more consonants that come together in
a word. There sounds blend together but each sound is heard for
example ( sc, fl, sp).
• Consonant diagraphs: when two consonants are placed together and
formed a new single sound. They are called a consonant diagraph.
• Vowel diagraphs: vowel diagraphs are produced in which two vowel
letters come together in one vowel sound is heard which could be
either long or short or have a special sound of its own.
• Syllabification: syllabification is the process of analyzing the patterns
of vowels and consonants in a word to determine where the word
breaks into syllables.
• Syllable structure:
• Onset: the consonants or consonant clusters that begin the syllable
and it always precedes the nucleus. It is an optional part of a syllable.
• Nucleus: is the only obligatory part of a syllable the sound in the
middle of the syllable ( usual a vowel) or diphthong and sometimes a
syllabic consonant.
• Coda : the consonants that end the syllable which is consonant.
• Three consonants:
• /sp/+ /r,j,l/ spray , spume , spleen
• /sk/ + /r,w,j/ screen, square, skew
• /st/ + /r,j/ strong , stew
Open and closed syllable
• An open syllable: is a syllable which end with a long vowel sounds and
there will be no consonant to close it and protect the vowel.

• A closed syllable: is a syllable that ends with a consonant. When the

vowel of a syllable is a short, the syllable will be closed off by one or
more consonants.
Syllable consonants
• A syllable consonant is a consonant that replace a vowel in a syllable
(l,n,m) are regarded syllabic consonant .
• •Bruce Hayes (2009) claimed , that the phonogical rules
refers to the different ways a sound can be pronounced in
different environments. That is to say, phonological rules
describe how a speaker goes from the abstract
representation stored in their brain, to the actual sound they
articulate when they speak.
• Types of Phonological Rules
• •Assimilation. it is often defined as a process of replacing one sound
(or changing some properties of a sound) under the influence of
another sound which occurs near to it. Simply we can say sounds
become more a like.
• • Good boy 
• •Can bake
• •Can go
• the / -s/ morpheme of the plural becomes / -z/ when preceded by a
voiced consonant , 
•     e.g. , bag + s / bagz /, pencil + s / 'penslz/ .
• • /-d/ becomes /-t/ when preceded  by a voiceless consonant: 
•        e.g., kick + ed  /kikt/.
• • /n/ becomes /m/ under the influence of a labial consonant that follows. 
•      For example, ten minutes / tem'minits/. 
• • /d/ becomes /t/ when followed by a voiceless consonant. 
•      For example, used to  /'ju:st tu/.
•
•Dissimilation. It is a phonological process in which neighbouring
sounds affect each other to make dissimilar sound. sounds changes to
become less alike.
• •Diphthong 
• •Fifth
• •sixths
• Deletion: is a phonological process in which one sound is
deleted because of the neighbouring sound
• Either of one or more sounds is deleted the from the beginning of a
word. Eg : /h/ may be deleted in unstressed syllables: 
• •1.He handed her. 2.his hat (the h in her and his is deleted).
• Syncope: is the loss of one or more sounds from the interior of a word.
• •go[ing t]o> gonna
• • wa[nt t]o > wanna
• • did n[o]t > didn't 
• • do[n't k]no[w] > dunno
• •I [woul]d [h]ave > I'd've] 
• • believe [bliv] Postman.
• •Friendship
• •Policeman
• •Next day 
• •Last car
• Insertion/Epenthesis  
• •In this kind of process a sound is added to a word  that is not
found in spelling. 
• •Hamster: hampstə
• •Warmth - wormpɵ
• •Australia all out- ostreiliər o:l aut
• •Media event –mi:diər ivent
• •Fence - fents
• Sometimes a sound is added  to the end of a word. 
• • slack and slacken (no change in meaning) toward-towards 
• • anyway-anyways
• •In some other cases a sound is added to the beginning of a word
without changing its morphological structure. This often happens
in language learning when the language which is being learned has
different combinations of vowels or consonant from the learner’s
first language. For example, learners of English often say
• • /espi:k/ for speak
• •Metathesis. It is a phonological rule through which two sounds
exchange their position , because of the neighbouring sound. one
occurrences of metathesis are slips of the tongue.
• •ask- aks
• •asterisk (*): mispronounced as “as-ter-iks”
introduce: mispronounced as “in-ter-duce”
relevant: mispronounced as “rev-e-lent”
• •prescription: mispronounced as “per-scrip-tion”
• Stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain
syllables in a word

• In every word in English, there is one main emphasized syllable.

 The vowel sound in this syllable sounds higher in pitch, longer, and
louder, and this is called stress
•
•Words which are stressed 
• •1. content words are stressed 
• •2. structure (function) words are unstressed 
• 
• •Content words - stressed
•   Words carrying the meaning Example
• •main verbs   SELL, GIVE, EMPLOY
• •nouns         CAR, MUSIC, MARY
• •adjectives   RED, BIG, INTERESTING
• •adverbs      QUICKLY, LOUDLY, NEVER 
• •negative auxiliaries. DON'T, AREN'T, CAN'T
•
•Structure words - unstressed
•    Words for correct grammar Example
• •pronouns        he, we, they
• •Prepositions    on, at, into
• •Articles            a, an, the
• •conjunctions   and, but, because
• •auxiliary verbs  do, be, have, can, must
• Intonation 
• Is the variation of pitch when we speaking.
• Patterns of intonation
• •Pitch pattern: Pitch is the degree of height of our voice in
speech.
• •Rhythmic pattern: the way speakers speak their own language.
• •Tonic pattern:  
•    a quality in the voice  that expresses the speaker's  feeling
 or thoughts , often towards the person being spoken  to.
• *stress
• Functions of intonation 
• •Attitudinal function: the most obvious role of intonation is to
express our emotion and thoughts to show shock or surprise,
pleasure or anger, interest or boredom, seriousness or sarcasm
and many others. We do by tone.
•
•Grammatical function: intonation helps identifying grammatical
structures in speech , rather as punctuation does in writing.
Moreover, intonation is used to disambiguate various
grammatically ambiguous structures. We do this mainly by
intonation.
• Example 
• •Those who sold quickly/ made a profit.
• •Those who sold / quickly made a profit.
•
•The focusing (also called accentual or informational)
function.
• •Intonation helps to show what information is new and what
is already known.
• The discourse (or cohesive) function. Intonation signals how
sequences of clauses and sentences go together in spoken
discourse, to contrast or cohere.
• •The psychological function. It helps us to organize speech into
units that are easy to perceive, memorize and perform)
• •example: "You can have it in red blue green yellow or ↘black" is
more difficult to understand and remember than the same
utterance divided into tone units as in "You can have it in ↗red |
↗blue | ↗green | ↗yellow | or ↘black"
•
•The indexical function. Intonation may act as a marker of personal
and social identity . such as street vendors or clergyman. And what
makes mothers sound like mother or what makes lawyers sound
like lawyer is the characteristic of  their intonation.