GO 111: BACKGROUND TO

GEOMORPHOLOGY
 INTRODUCTION
• Geomorphology (from Greek: geo, "earth";
morfé, "form"; and logos, "study")
• The scientific study of landforms and the
processes that shape them.
• Geomorphologists seek to understand why
landscapes look the way they do, to understand
landform history and dynamics, and to predict
future changes.
 Difference

• Landform 
• Topography
• Landscape
Topic 1: Origin and Structure
of the Earth
 The universe
• The universe began about 13.7 billion years
ago
• The Big Bang Theory states that, in the
beginning, the universe had the size of a single
atom
• Violent expansion created all matter and space
The Beginning of Everything -- The Big
Bang.mp4
 Origin of the solar system
• The solar system was formed about 5 billion
years ago.
• Nebular Hypothesis is the currently accepted
argument about how a Solar System was
formed
• According to the hypothesis, our Solar System
formed from a giant, swirling cloud of gas &
dust (nebula).
• Depends on two principles of Physics:
 Newton’s Law of Gravity
• “Particle attracts every other particle in the
universe using a force that is directly
proportional to the product of their masses
and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them”.
 Law of conservation of angular
momentum
• The law of conservation of angular
momentum states that when no external
torque acts on an object, no change of
angular momentum will occur.
• i.e. When an object is spinning in a closed
system and no external torques are applied
to it, it will have no change in angular
momentum.
 Nebular theory cont…
• The nebular theory holds that our Solar
System formed out of a nebula which
collapsed under its own gravity
• The solar nebular was initially somewhat
spherical and a few light years in diameter.
• As the nebula shrank, gravity increased,
causing collapse.
• As the nebula “falls” inward, gravitational
potential energy is converted to heat. –
Conservation of Energy.
 Nebular theory cont…
• As the nebula’s radius decreases, it
rotates faster – Conservation of Angular
Momentum
• The spinning nebula assumes the shape
of a disk.
• As the nebula
collapses,
clumps of
gas collide

& merge.
 Nebular theory cont…

• As a result of contraction and rotation, a flat,

rapidly rotating disk forms with the matter
concentrated at the centre that became the
proto-sun.
• After sufficient mass and density was
achieved in the Sun, the temperature rose to
one million °C, resulting in thermonuclear
fusion.
 Nebular theory cont…
• The planets formed in the rest of the disk.
• This would explain the following:
 All planets lie along one plane (in the disk)
 All planets orbit in one direction (the spin
direction of the disk)
 Most moons orbit in this direction
 most planetary orbits are near circular
(collisions in the disk)
 Protoplanets
• Gravitational forces allow the inner planets to
accrue and compact solid matter (including light
and heavy atoms)
• Solar radiation blew gases (primarily hydrogen,
helium) away from inner planets
• These gases were collected and condensed into
the gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune)
• Beyond Neptune, ice and frozen gases form
Pluto.
• Left-over debris form comets and asteroids
 Origin of the earth
• The age of the Earth was once, and is still
debatable.
• In 1650 Archbishop Ussher used the Bible to
calculate that the Earth was created in 4004 BC.
• (Later on) In the mid-nineteenth century Charles
Darwin believed that the Earth must be extremely
old because he recognized that natural selection and
evolution required vast amounts of time.
 Origin of the earth cont..
• The discovery of radioactivity by scientists
gave more clues to the origin of the earth.
• Throughout this century the race has been on
to discover the oldest rocks in the world.
• The oldest volcanic rock found so far has
been dated at 3.75 billion years old, but this
is not the whole story.
 Origin of the earth cont..
• Meteorites created at the same time as the Earth hit
us all the time, radioactive dating shows that they
are about 4.55 billion years old.
• Present composition of the atmosphere is: 21%
Oxygen, 78% Nitrogen, 0.04% Carbon dioxide,
~0.9% Argon. The atmosphere wasn't like this when
the Earth was created over 4½ billion years ago.
 Origin of the earth cont..
• The Earth's surface was originally molten.

• As the earth cooled the volcanoes belched out

massive amounts of Carbon dioxide, Steam,
Ammonia and Methane.
• There was NO Oxygen. The Steam condensed
to form water which then produced shallow
seas.
 Origin of the earth cont..
• Evidence points to bacteria flourishing 3.8
billion years ago.
• This means that life got under way about 700
million years after the Earth was created.
• Early forms of life existed in the shallow
oceans close to thermal vents. The vents were a
source of heat and minerals.
 Origin of the earth cont..
• These primitive life forms then took the next
evolutionary step and started to Photosynthesise
(using sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water to
food energy and oxygen).
• Photosynthesis was an important turning point in
Earth history.
• These green plants went on producing oxygen and
removing the CO2.
 Origin of the earth cont..
• Most of the carbon from the carbon
dioxide in the air became locked up in
sedimentary rocks as carbonates and fossil
fuels. Carbon dioxide also dissolved into
the oceans.
• The ammonia and methane in the
atmosphere reacted with the oxygen.
 Origin of the earth cont..
• Nitrogen was released, partly from the
reaction between ammonia and oxygen, but
mainly from living organisms such as
denitrifying bacteria (cyanobacteria).
• Oxygen produced by photosynthesis was
taken out again by reacting with other
elements (such as iron).
 Origin of the earth cont..
• At about 2.1 billion years ago the
concentration of oxygen increased markedly.
• The ozone layer was then formed which
started to filter out harmful ultraviolet rays.
This allowed the evolution of new living
organisms in the shallow seas and land.
 Prehistorical
• Pangaea (~300–~210 million years ago)
• Pannotia, also called Vendian (~600–~545
million years ago)
• Rodinia (~1.1 Ga–~750 million years ago)
• Columbia, also called Nuna (~1.8–1.5 Ga
ago)
• Kenorland (~2.7 Ga ago).
• Vaalbara (~3.6 Ga ago).