Introduction

• From 1940 onward unprecedented scale of activity in mineral exploration.

• Not to depend on untrained prospectors. To observe geological techniques and to focus on
intensified techniques of mapping geologic structures and detecting ores concealed under
soil, debris, and barren rocks through photo geological, geophysical and geochemical techs
being cost effective.
• In recent days these techs are essential part of exploration program.
• Geochemistry in mineral Exploration:
• Any method base on measurement of one or more properties of naturally occurring material.
Chemical property measured is the trace content of elements or group of elements in rock,
soil, debris, vegetation, stream, glaciers, water or vapor to discover anomalies.
• Methods Reconnaissance surveys. Large area, sample spacing, elimination of barren ground,
10 to thousand of sq of area,1 sq km or 100sq km sample.
• Detail reconnaissance surveys sampling from sediments and streams and lakes. In glacial
area sampling from till residual soil samples. chemi comp of plants. photomaps, Airborne
device.
 DETAILED SURVEY

• To pinpoint the mineralized zone with precision for drilling or trenching.

Close sampling,1m o 100m. Limited to restricted area.
• Systematic sampling of superjacent ano.
• Soil surveys plant sampling. Sampling of cap rocks for leaked anomalies.
• According to Fersman “Geochemistry studies
the history of chemical elements in the earth’s
crust and their behavior under different
thermodynamic and physicochemical natural
conditions”
• Gold Schmidt defines “Geoche is concerned
with the laws governing the distribution of
che elements and their isotopes through out
the earth”
• Correns 1969 describes as under.
• Four major goals of Geoche are.
• Distribution of chemical elements.
• Causes of observed chem com of terrestrial and
extra terrestrial materials.
• Chemical reaction on surface of earth in its
interior and solar system.
• To assemble the infor in to geo chemical cycle of
past and future.
 Branches
• In organic Geo che
• Organic Geo che.
• Isotope Geo che
• Medical Geoche.
• Aqueous Geoche
• Trace element Geo Che
• Cosmochemistry
• Agriculture Geo che
• Environmental Geoche
• Public health.
• Marine Geoche.
 EARLY HISTORY
• Two essentials=discovery of elements
accurate method of analysis of
rocks and minerals.
Matter
in 16th cen=earth,water,fire ,air
With qualities as warm,cold,dry,wet
Analytical che in 18th Cen gave 42 elemtnts.
Organization in to groups based on che
properties.
• Periodic table
• Word geochemistry was first used by
Christian f.Schonbein of Basel uni Switzerland
in 1838 .
• Clark of USGS.
• Geoch in USSR.
• In 1932 Soviet geolo analysed soil samples and
then metalometric surveys.
• Fersman and prof VI Vernadsky.
• V .M. Gold Schmidt uni of Gottingen Germany
• Modern Geochemistry
• Beginning in 1950s
• Root of research was A.Fersman cocept of
thermo.
• In 1904 Geophysical Labs at Carnegei inst of
Washington to study igneous rocks.
• N.L. Bowen published book”The evolution of
the igneous rocks”
• 1952 Brian Mason published book on
“Principles of Geochemistry”
• Geoche prospecting started in 1947 by
USGS(Hawkes& Lakin) in 1949 based on
colorimetry.
• Used in UK& Africa Imperial College of S&T
became the center of activity.
 Big bang
• Universe started like a bubble in the stream.
• Suddenly formed and expanded as though it
was exploding.
• Mass and energy existed from beginning.
• As a result of pressure and temp after big
bang matter existed in the form of quark soap.
• Upon cooling organized in to nuclei of H&HE.
• Some 700,000 ys later radiation and matter
separated and stars and galaxies came in to being
evident by “Red Shift” of spectral lines of light
emitted by galaxies.
• combined research of physicists and cosmologists
to reconstruct the history of universe after big
bang through Grand Unified Theory (GUT) will
give closer clue.
• Future expansion can only be predicted when
total amount of matter is known.
•
• If the mass of universe is sufficient to slow the
expansion & ultimately to reverse it will
disappear again.
• Universe is still expanding and space also
expand along with.
• Big bang not was accepted till the discovery of
microwave background radiation, discovered
by Arno A. Penzias and Wilson in 1964.
• Stellar evolution: matter in universe is
organized in to hierarchy of heavenly bodies in
order of decreasing size.
• Clusters of galaxies comets
• Galaxies asteroids
• Stars, pulsars and meteoroids
• backhoes dust particles
• Planets molecules
• Satellites atoms of H&HE.
• Stars are basic units .many bi of stars make
galaxy. space between stars contains gases
H&HE.
• Stars may have stellar companions.
• Space between Jupiter and Mars contains
asteroids fragments of larger bodies broken
by collision and gravitational.
force between the two .
• Pieces of asteroids are meteorites.
• Space between stars contains gases +solid
particles (H&HE)
• Evolution of stars= luminosities +surface temp
• Tem+ color gives volume of star’
• Contraction of gases increases tem and
radiation starts.
• Massive stars= blue giants
• Small stars= red dwarfs
• Sun star of modest magnitude.
• Instability of stars explosion and generation of
new ones
• White dwarfs or pulsars or black holes .
 Summary
• It is an expanding universe with uncertain
future. It started with Big Bang about 15x10
9

and evolved as per laws of physics. Stars are

the basic units and formed by contraction of
clouds of gas and dust until their temps are
sufficient to cause H fusion. Stars evolves
depending upon their masses and initial
comp. They generate energy by nuclear
reaction.In the end they explode
• The abundances of che elements in solar
system is due to nuclear reaction that
energize the stars. These reactions progress
from fusion ofH&HE. Che elements occur
through out the universe like earth but their
abundances vary according to local conditions.
 SOLAR SYSTEM
• Sun = clouds of gas + dust particles along with
others stars of Milky Way galaxy.
• Some times process forms two companions
stars but in case of sun 9 planets were
formed.
• Human life appeared 2or 3 million ys ago.
• Geo che studies not only earth but also the
planets through studies of meteorites.
 Origin of the solar system
• Origin is linked with sun.
• Solar nebula= mass of gas and dust formed 6
billion yrs due to terminal explosion of stars.
• Dust clouds were rotating in the same way of the
milky way galaxy and were acted upon by
magnetic and gravitational forces,
• After the contraction of the mass of solar nebula
physical and che conditions in the shape of pre
and tem increased and also rate of rotation
• Certain kind of solid evaporated as tem
increased.
• As a result more refractory particles survived in
the central hottest part of SN &whereas in the
outer cooler region the variety of compds
remained in solid state. The increased rate of
rotation caused part of nebula to form a disk.
• The solid particles congregated in the disk and
made it more opaque to absorb infrared
radiation.
• Temp and press increased in the disk and
caused the first major differentiation of the
solar nebula. low vapor comps formed dust
and high vapor remained in outer cooler
region. The condensates accreted to form
large bodies due to electrostatic and magnetic
forces and called planetesimals having
diameter ranging from 10m to 1000km.The
planetesimals close to protosun were
composed of more refractory compds
• Of oxides and iron +NI Further out were Mg
and Fe and further out ices ,water, ammonia,
methane etc.Initial system of solar was fast
and sun luminosity was two or three time
greater. This super luminous phase of sun
lasted for 10 millions yrs and resulted in the
expulsion of 25% mass of the sun in solar
wind. All gaseous matter around was blown
and solid planetesimals of more than 10m
remained.
• Planetesimals in the inner region formed earth
like planets Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars and
the planet bodies of meteorites. Instabilities
resulted in the formation of gaseous outer
planets like Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune,
and Plato.
• Around 99.87 % of total mass is concentrated in
Sun remaining 0.13% is distributed amongst
others and Jupiter holds 71% .Mercury, Venus,
Earth, mars and moon consist of solid objects
composed of elements and low vapor pressure.
• Jupiter ,Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are
gaseous .Inner planets resembles earth are
known as terrestrial or earth like planets.
• Outer planets contains H& HE and are Sun
like.
• Earth like planets +moon and asteroids make
0.0006% of total mass. Earth is largest of inner
planets with 53.3 % of mass followed by
Venus 40.9%, Mars 5.4 and Mercury 2.8%
• Earth is unique amongst earth like planets
covered by 71% water with lot of species of the
plants and animals. No life on other planets.
• Origin of the earth.
• Earth like planet were hot when formed due to
heat generated and radioactive heating.
• Planetesimals composed of metallic iron and
oxides formed a core which was replaced by
silicates.
• The last phase of formation of Earth, Venus,
and Mars involved capture of planetesimals
composed of volatiles formed out side the
planetary disk called cometestimals composed
of water, ammonia, methane.
• Water and other volatiles on earth evaporated
and condensed, when earth cooled..
Mercury, moon are small to have such
atmosphere.
• Earth like are cooling since inception. Mercury
and Moon has cooled to become inactive. Venus
& Earth are still active. Mars has had volcanic
eruption in not too distance geologic time.
• Although similar in size and comp their surfaces
have evolved differently .Mars has dense
atmosphere composed of Co2 with hot and dry
surface. Earth cooled rapidly allowing water
vapors to condense to form oceans.
Condensates from the Solar Nebula at different
temp
• Temp Co Condensates
• 1325 refractory oxides Ca, Ti, Al, REE oxides
• 1025 metallic Fe, NI.
• 925 enstatite (MgSiO3)
• 925-220 Fe to FeO and formation of olivine.
• 725 Na reacts with Al2O3 & silicates to
form felds.
400 H2S reacts with metallic Fe to FeS
• 280 H2O react Ca minerls to form .
• 150 H2O reacts with oli to form serpent.
• -100 H2O to condense to form ice.
 Summary
• The sequence of events leading to formation
of solar sys can be reconstructed as direct
extension of stellar evolution by applying laws
of phy and che.Earth like planets constitute a
small fraction of total mass of solar sys .Earth
is only planet with life.Jupiter forms its own
planetary sys.Four largest sate are similar in
size to Mercury & Moon but diff in che com .
• Earth and earth like planets never had H&HE of
the solar nebula.
• Satellites of the outer Planets.
• All outer planets have satellites bigger then Moon
and Mercury with different ch com.
• Satellites of the planets.
• Jupiter Io
Europa
Ganymede
Callisto
• Saturn Mimas
Enceladus
Tethys
Dione
Hyperion
Titen
Iapetus
Phoebe
Uranus Miranad
Ariel
Umbriel
Titania
Oberon
Naptune Triton
Nereid
 Condensates from the Solar Nebula at diff tem

• Temp C Condensates
-------------------------------------------------------------
1325 Refractory oxides of Ca, Al, TI.REE
1326 Metallic Fe & NI
1327 enstatite (MgSio3).
925-220 Fe forms FeO to react with enstatite to
form olivine.
725 Na reacts with Al2O3+ Silictes to form felds.
• 400 H2S reacts with FE to form FeS
• 280 H2O vapor reacts with Ca minerls to
form tremolite.
150 H2O vapor reacts with oliv to form
sepentine.
-100 H2O vapor to form ice.
 Properties of Sun & its Planets
• Object Dia no of sate
• Sun 1,391,400 -
• Mercury 4,878 0
• Venus 12,100 0
• Earth 12,756 1
• Moon 3,476 -
• Mars 6,786 2
• Ceres (asteroid) 1,020 -
• Jupiter 142,984 16
• Saturn 120.526 21
• Uranus 51,118 15
• Neptune 49,562 8
• Pluto 3,000 1
 BASIC PRINCIPLES
• Geoche as defined by Gold schimdt and
summarized by Mason is concerned with the
(1) determination of relative and absolute
abundance
• of elementsts' in the earth(2)distribution and
migration of elementst. A third aspect has also
been added the application of geoch
principles in solving human needs through
environmental and exploration geoche.
 The geochemical environment.
• Geolo and geoch earth is dynamic syst in
which mat moves from place to place by
variety of processes like melting, cryst,
Erosion, dissolation, precipi, vapori, &radio a
decay.
• Geo che enviro in terms of temp, pres,
availabi of che comp determines the stability
of minels and fluids at any point.
• Geo che envir can be classified in to
• 1. deep seated
• 2. surfacial
• DS are the lowest level where surface water
reached the deepest level where normal rocks
can be formed.Mag and meta predominate in
this zone, an envir of high tep and pre and low
oxy.Volcanism, hot springs. It may be termed as
hypogene, primary or endogenous enviro.
• Surficial enviro is the enviro of weathering,
erosion, and sedimantation with low temp, pres,
free movement of solution with abundant oxy,
water, Co2( Supergene , secondry, & exogenic.
• Move of earth mat from one enviro to another is
a clock wise phenomenon where sed rocks under
pres and temp alter to meta rocks and at the end
melts to form new igneous rocks and
hydrothermal fluids.
• After erosion and redeposition new sedi rocks
form.
Geochemical Dispersion.
Mass passes through major deformation and
does not maintain its identity and
redistributed , fractionated and mixed with
other masses .This process of movement to
new locations and gechemcal environment id
called geoch dispersion. Dynamic system
• Disper may be mechanical or movement of
glaciers.mach pro involve mixing but not
differn whereas ch proc create fractions of
widely different chemls.
• Disper may be DS or surfacial prim or
secondry
 Example of dispersion
• Environment
• Stage DS Surf
• Primary Difussion of matals preci of traces of
in to wall rocks around hydrother metals on sea floo

deposits during ore deposition. Near volgenic dep

Secon Diffusion of metls from ore depo weathering of

under metamorph surfacial dep
 Geochemical Mobility
• Dispersion pross is governed by mobility of
matter. some enviro it depends on machenical
proper of the mobile phase such as viscosity
of magma and solutions or shape and size &
density of grains in flowing stream. Relation
ship between mobility and che differe is more
involved.
 Geochem Reactions.
• Involvement of che process in dispersion.An
accurate & complete reaction is not possible.
• Two features=minerl or fluid phase (solid,
• liquid ,gas)
form of element in the phase
(major or minor.
If the element occurs as major component of a
minrl, then it may become mobile by dissolution,
melting, volatilization.
• The most common equation in case of Zn as
ZnCo3
• ZnCo3=Zn2+9(aq) +CO3(aq)
• Balance but not real che reaction.In majority
of surface water CO3 ion is less abundant then
HCO3, then reaction would be ZnCO3+H(aq)
+HCO3(aq)
 Dispersion under DS condition
• On cryta of magma trace elements are partitioned between
the crys and silicate melt.
• In case of Zn2+ reaction is as under:
• Zn2+(melt)+CaMgSi2O3(pyro)=CaZnSi2O3(Pyro)+Mg2+
(melt).
• Mobility under surfical conditions.
• Dominated by transport in aqueous solutions.
• Guide to mobility is given by ionic potential which is equal
to ionic charge divided by ionic radius. Elements with low
ionic potential(Na, Ca) are soluble as simple cations ,with
high ionic potential attracts oxy and form soluble oxy
anions With intermidiate ionic poten are generally
immobile.
• ASSOCIATION OF ELEMENTS.
• Indicator element= element measured to detect
an ore body & is valuable component
• Path finder element= If valuable component is
difficult to analyze then another element
associated with ore is used. Useful PF elem are
those with more desirable geoche or analytical
properties .Mo is more mobile then Cu and can be
used as PF for porphyry Cu deposits.
• Cu can be used as path finder in case of Cu-Ni
deposits.PF are generally used for certain
types of ores as Mo for porphyry Cu deposits.
• As is path finder for Au deposits.
• Most widely used PF are as under.
• PF ele Material sampled ore type
• As wallrock, resi soil, stream sedi Vein type Au ore
• Hg Wall rock, soil Pb, Zn, Ag ores
• Se Gossan, resi soil Epi sulfides
• Ag Resi soil Ag bearing Au ore
• Mo Water, stream,soil porphyry Cu dep
• So4 Water sulfide depo
Pattern of Geochemical Distribution.
Geographic distri of elem in rocks &soil is a response to
sum of all processes in mov of earth material.Distr
reflects the lithological units.Ds hydrother may modify
the basic relation to rock type.Weth, erosion and other
processes may modify the patterns in DS enviro.
• Recognition of pattern is the aim of geochem.
• If the effect is intense and local distiction from
more normal proces is simple but the effect is
week and complex data is difficult to interprit.
• Foe this pattern related to ore is necessary
first to determine the background
value of indi.cator elements
 Normal background Values
• Abundance of elements in unminerlized area.
• Abundance of elemts in a ave crustal rocks.
• Al 81,000 ppm Calcium 33,000 Iron 46,500
• Mag 17,000 Oxy 473,000 Phos 900
• Potassium 25,000 Silica291,000 Sodium 25000
• Titanium 4,400
• Distri of an element in any particular earth mate
is rarely uniform. Range not absolute
value.Nature of enviro influence the distr.
• Composition differs from average.
• Ultra basic rich in Cr,Ni granites in Li,Rb
• BG in soil is accor to type.Range observed in
normal soil.
• Geological Anomaly.
• Deviation from norm. Geoche ano is
departure from the geo che patterns that are
normal for given area of geoch enviro
• Ore deposit rare or abnormal is a geoch ano.
• Recognizable patterns related either to
genesis or erosion of ore depo is anamo.
• Can be used as guide.values higher than
normal BG. Negitive ano not used for
searching ore.Significant anom= high content
of indicator elemts fron non eco minel or by
geoche,geolo processes unrelated to ore
• Non signi=superfacial unlated anom.
• Theshold. cocen of indicator elemt obove which a
sample is considered anomolous, upper limit of
normal Bg .Higher anmo lower BG.Two or more
TH.Regional and local Th for propecting.
• Principles of interpretation.
• Effective inter requires multiple population
data.Log normally distribution of BG samples is
one population.
• Samples near to ore & effected by dispersion
second popu.
• Samples related to certain rock type or unusual
aspect is add popul.
• If effective survey anomalous samples can be
distigu from BG. Threshold set high ore bodies
may be mised.Th low time and money wasted.
• Simple method ,few analysis from area compared
with literature, anomalous sample area can be
studied further.