Political Theory

Understanding Main Concept and

issues
 Types of normative questions
asked by political theories
What purpose should government serve? Equality?
Justice? Security?
How should governments be organized? To advance
their power? To limit their power?
Should they help citizens lead ethical lives? Can a state
be ethical if its citizenry is not?
What is the origin of government?
What is the purpose of government?
What legitimates the power and authority of government?
What is the best form of government?
The allegory of the cave, continued
In other words, new ideas are dangerous,
even when they are the truth. We like our
comfortable illusions.
The text mentions how political thinkers on
the left and the right have been ridiculed
for their ideas, even in open political
societies like the U.S. and Britain.
 Utopianism
Many political theories deal with attempts
to create a perfect society, a utopia.
 Utopianism
The notion of an ideal political society was
often used by political writers to criticize
the status quo.
Dates from ancient Greeks, especially
Plato writing The Republic.
Also evident in 17th century English writing
and in some contemporary science fiction.
 Dystopias
A nightmare distortion of a utopia.
It happens when leaders “impose”
perfection on imperfect human beings.
To create a perfect society, those leaders
must exercise totalitarian control over all
aspects of human life.
 Plato’s The Republic
Plato’s ideas of a utopian society:
Three natural groups:
 Workers, farmers, shopkeepers & artisans
who provide material wealth for the
community.
 Military units- called auxiliaries - who defend
it.
 Guardians – who govern it, with Philosopher-
king at the top
 Plato’s The Republic
Plato’s ideas of a utopian society: Each
person performs the tasks for which he or
she is best suited. Injustice occurs when
people act contrary to their nature.
Ambition & competition unnatural.
 The Republic, continued
To maintain the utopia, Plato said these
elements were necessary:
Hierarchy of the best, rule by meritocracy.
Dangerous and untrue ideas censored.
The "Noble Lie."
What is the Noble Lie?
 The Noble Lie
People will be convinced that their prior
lives were just a dream, not reality.
Further, they must be convinced that they
occupy their positions in society due to the
type of metal in their souls.

Why noble? Because it ensures popular

acceptance (legitimacy) of the new
republic ruled by the Philosopher King.
 The Republic, continued
Is this a utopia or dystopia? Why?
 The Republic, continued
It depends.
Ordinary people in the bottom class can amass
wealth and have families and private lives.

Those in the top two classes, there is almost

totalitarianism. They would not be permitted a
family life or private property. Otherwise, they
would put self-interest above the good of the
whole.
 Hobbes vs. Locke: essential
concepts
Concepts they share:
 The State of Nature
 Natural Rights
 The Social Contract
Where they differ:
 What drives human behavior?
Passion (Hobbes)
Reason (Locke) Hobbes
 What is the best form of
government?
Absolute monarchy (Hobbes)
Constitutionalism (Locke)

Locke
 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan
(1651)
Wanted to construct a “science of
politics” based on an indisputable
principle
This principle must be based on
the strongest element in human
nature
The strongest element was
passion, not reason
The strongest passion is fear of
violent death
This fear gives rise to the natural
right of self-preservation
The natural right of self-
preservation is the basis of
Hobbes’ thought

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan
(1651)
In a state of nature there is a war
of every man against every man
“No arts, no letters, and which is
worst of all, continual fear and
danger of violent death, and the
life of man solitary, poor, nasty,
brutish, and short.”
To secure peace men make
contracts establishing a sovereign
power who is not subject to civil
law since by its will it creates the
law
Of the three forms of sovereignty
(monarchy, aristocracy, and
democracy), monarchy is the most
effective in securing peace

Leviathan (1651)
 John Locke, Second Treatise of
Civil Government (1690)
The state of nature is not a
state of perpetual war;
All men are free and equal; no
man by nature is sovereign
over another man
The law of nature, revealed by
reason, governs the state of
nature
Natural rights include the right
to Life, Liberty, and Estate
(property)

John Locke (1632-1704)

 John Locke, Second Treatise of
Civil Government (1690)
No one ought to harm another
in his life, liberty, or property; if
anyone does harm another,
the one he harms has the right
to punish him
Through a social contract,
people create a government to
protect their natural rights of
life, liberty, and property
The best form of government
to protect natural rights is a
government of limited powers
(constitutionalism)
If a government breaks the
social contract, the people
have the right to dissolve it

Two Treatises of Civil Government (1690)

James Madison, The Federalist,
No. 10
One of many essays published during
the fight for the ratification of the
Constitution (1787-88)
During this time, Federalists supported
the stronger central government under
the proposed Constitution; Anti-
Federalists were apprehensive about a
stronger central government and
opposed the Constitution
Madison’s The Federalist, No. 10 was
written to convince Anti-Federalists
that liberty could be safeguarded in a
large republic
“Among the numerous advantages
promised by a well constructed Union,
none deserves to be more accurately
developed than its tendency to break
and control the violence of faction.”
James Madison (1751-1836)
 The U.S. Constitution
Establishes the government of the
United States of America
Implements the principles of
Enlightenment political theory
Creates a government of limited
powers (constitutionalism)
The Preamble explains the reasons for
establishing this government:
“We the People of the United States, in
Order to form a more perfect Union,
establish Justice, insure domestic
Tranquility, provide for the common
defence, promote the general Welfare,
and secure the Blessings of Liberty to
ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain
and establish this Constitution for the
United States of America.”
 Jean Jacques Rousseau, The
Social Contract (1762)
Man is best in the state of nature
Since perfect freedom is the
natural condition of human beings,
it is the existence of social
restrictions that requires
explanation
Only the family is truly a natural
association
Military conquest and slavery in its
usual forms cannot establish any
genuine right for one person to
rule over another
Society must devolve from a
social contract in which individual
citizens voluntarily participate

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

 Jean Jacques Rousseau, The
Social Contract (1762)
But throughout history, the
wealthiest and most powerful
members of society made
inequality a permanent feature of
human society
Rather than have a government
which largely protects the wealth
and the rights of the powerful few,
government should be
fundamentally based on the rights
and equality of everyone
These ideas were essential for
both the French and American
revolutions
This social inequality was deeply
felt in 18th century France…

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

 What purpose does
government serve?
Plato says justice and truth.
John Locke says protection of our natural
rights.
Thomas Hobbes says security, to keep us
from killing each other.
 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan
English political theorist from 1588 to 1679.
Humans are equal and capable of rational
thought, but:
Human nature is aggressive and greedy,
and human life is “brutish and short”. The
state of nature is ruthless and frightening.
No advancement in science, arts,
commerce, etc., is possible because
existence itself so fragile.
 Hobbes, continued
Government formed for the sole purpose
of providing security. Need a strong
authoritarian government to control
humans’ violent passions.

Hobbesian world: might makes right and

the weak are victimized. Pessimistic view
of human nature.
 Should government promote
equality?
Political theorists divided on this.
Review ideas of Aristotle, Jefferson,
Tecumseh, Chico Mendes, Friedrich
Nietzsche and Kurt Vonnegut.
 Equality of rights
Thomas Jefferson’s view of equality: a
natural human right which government is
supposed to secure.
A government which fails to do this forfeits
its authority; the people then have a right
of revolution.
Evident in Declaration of Independence, a
classical liberal document (John Locke)
 Equality of property rights
Tecumseh (early 19th century) emphasized
the property rights of Native American
communities, the right to regain lands
taken by white settlers. The Native
American leaders who had negotiated the
treaties had no authority to give away
tribal lands, because the land was held in
common.
 Equality of participation
Chico Mendes of Brazil (mid-20th century)
advocated equality of participation for
indigenous people in making decisions about the
rainforests. Mendes demanded that the people
in the rainforest have a voice in the decision
making process. Neither cattle ranchers nor
environmentalists could speak for them,
because those groups had their own interests.
Unlike Aristotle, he saw equality of process as
the only way to ensure equality of results.
Idea of equality false & dangerous
Friedrich Nietzsche (late 19th century), a
German philosopher, believed egalitarianism
harmful as well as false, derived from a slave
mentality advanced by the weak to drag down
the “best” people. Christianity a “slave morality,”
because it taught humility and forgiveness. In
contrast is the master morality which extols
strength.
Nietzsche blamed for fostering elitism; his ideas
influenced the development of Nazi thought.
Equality produces mediocrity
Kurt Vonnegut, an American author who
favors democracy but warns of the
dangers of complete equality in a futuristic
short story. To ensure absolute equality,
those with exceptional mental or physical
abilities were hampered with “equalizing
gear.” The resulting society was drab and
mediocre.
Power: maximized or restrained?
Should the government be free of
constraints? Yes, in order to act decisively
against threats, according to Niccolo
Machiavelli
Should government power be checked?
Yes, to guard against tyranny, according
to James Madison and the framers of the
U.S. Constitution
 Machiavelli’s The Prince
Machiavelli argued for a strong central
ruler who was amoral but would appear to
be moral; who would use moral and
religious appeals to win support from the
citizenry. Relying on the people’s love
was too insecure, yet fostering their hate
was dangerous. Better to have people
fear the ruler, because they can then be
controlled.
 Power and Politics

What is power? Is it as meaning by force?

What is the nature of power?
There is any deal with politics?

33
The word politics comes from ancient Greece.
Its root is the word polis, which began to be
used about 2,800 years ago to denote a self-
governing city (city-state)

POLIS – city-state
POLITES – citizen
POLITIKOS – politician
POLITIKE – politics as the art of citizenship
and government
POLITEIA – constitution, rules of politics
POLITEUMA – political community, all those
residents who have full political rights
Four categories of residents of the ancient Greek polis
1. Citizens with full legal and political rights
Adult free men born legitimately of citizen parents. They
had the right to vote, be elected into office, bear arms,
and the obligation to serve when at war.
2. Citizens with legal rights but no political rights:
Women and underage children, whose political rights and
interests were represented by their adult male relatives
3. Foreigners (citizens of other city-states):
Full legal rights, but no political rights. Could not vote,
could not be elected to office, could not bear arms and
could not serve in war. Subject to taxation.
4. Slaves
Property of their owners, any privileges depend on the
owner’s will
The Acropolis, Athens
State

Market
Society
There is a city called Polis in the northern part of the
Island of Cyprus:
http://www.polis-municipality-cyprus.com/
 Power
The fuel of politics.
The ability to make,
or to influence the making of,
those binding decisions which are the essence of politics
Struggle for power
Distribution of power: how fair? how equal? how
effective?
Balance of power
Great power, superpower, hyperpower
A powerful leader
 TYPES OF POWER
POLITICAL POWER
control of, or influence on, the state, ability to
make, or influence, political decisions
ECONOMIC POWER
control of economic assets
MILITARY POWER
ability to wage war - or to compel others
through intimidation or deterrence
These forms of power interact in many ways.
For example?
An important distinction:
“Power over…”
and “power to…”
“Power to” conveys the idea of one’s ability to realize
one’s goals without coercing others
Individually, by exercising one’s freedom
Or collectively, by joining with others in a free and
voluntary way
Associated with visions of a good society, based on the
ideals of freedom, equality, justice, solidarity, democracy
Gandhi’s first protest, South Africa, 1906:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SNmJqRV7LOA
Barack Obama, 2009:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yCFhpYMhaqY&featur
e=channel
In real life, “power over” is the prevalent kind of power
Its main characteristics:
1. AN INTERACTIVE PROCESS
(you have to have someone to have power over)

2. POTENTIAL or ACTIVE
3. A PURPOSEFUL ACTIVITY
4. PROMOTIVE (Do it!) or PREVENTIVE (Don’t do it!)
5. BALANCED or UNBALANCED (“Absolute power corrupts
absolutely” – Lord Acton). Democracy associated with balanced
power
PSYCOLOGICAL DIMENSION OF POWER

INFLUENCE – use of power (or power

exertion) with an uncertain outcome
CONTROL – use of power with a more or
less certain outcome
DOMINATION – structured, stable use of
power
EXPLOITATION- Structured, POWER
ABUSED
5 principal forms of power (see OCDP, “power”)
1.FORCE – ability to detain and harm people and damage or
confiscate their property to compel them to obey your orders
2.PERSUASION – ability to convince people to do what they
otherwise would not have done by invoking their own
interests and common sense
3.AUTHORITY – legitimate (just and lawful) power to control
and direct people’s activities
4.COERCION – controlling people by means of threatening
use of force
5.MANIPULATION – controlling people without threats, by
persuading them about the legitimacy of the existing power
relationships, or by offering them benefits
LEGITIMATE power
TYPES OF LEGITIMACY (Max Weber, Politics as a
Vocation)
TRADITIONAL – based on tradition, established
beliefs or values (example: rule of dynasties, power of
the church)
LEGAL-RATIONAL – based on formal
arrangements (rules, laws, constitutions). The main type
practiced in contemporary politics
CHARISMATIC*– based on the extraordinary
personal qualities of a leader, or on the influence of an
idea or a cause
*from ancient Greek word “charisma”, meaning “gift”
Information as a power resource
“Knowledge is power” – Francis Bacon
From the printing press to the Internet
The Information Revolution
The Information Age
The new role of information in our lives – in our
economy, social relations, politics – as a result of rapid
development of ICT (information and communication
technologies) since the 1980s
Access to information
Management of information
Control of information
 Controlling people through their minds
Values, ideas, the daily information flow
 Religion, education, propaganda, mass media
The power of discourse
The information battleground: how controllable are we?
Can you fool all the people all the time?
SO, WHERE DOES POWER COME FROM,
ULTIMATELY?
Power is produced by social cooperation.
Ultimately, it is a collective product. We create
power by acting together.
The problem is that this product is usually
appropriated by the few and used at the expense
of, or downright against, the many.
Power, like love, is easier to experience than to define
or measure.  Power is the ability to achieve one’s
purposes or goals.  The dictionary tells us that it is the
ability to do things and to control others.  Robert Dahl,
a leading political scientist, defines power as the ability
to get others to do what they otherwise would not do

Robert A. Dahi, Who Governs? Democracy and Power in an American City (New
Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1961).  See also James March, “The Power of
Power” in David Easton, ed., Varieties of Political Theory (New York: Prentice
Hall, 1966), 39-70; Herbert Simon, Models of Man (New [York: John Wiley, 1957);
and David Baldwin, “Power Analysis and World Politics,” World Politics 31
(January 1979): 161-94.]  HHC: {bracketed] displayed on p.178 of original
Some observers have argued that the sources of
power are, in general, moving away from the
emphasis on military force and conquest that
marked earlier eras.  In assessing international
power today, factors such as technology,
education, and economic growth are becoming
more important, whereas geography, population,
and raw materials are becoming less important
 Leading States and Major Power Resources, 1500s-1900s

Period Major Resources

Leading State
Sixteenth Spain Gold bullion, colonial trade, mercenary armies, dynastic ties
century
Seventeenth Netherlands Trade, capital markets, navy
century
Eighteenth France Population, rural industry, public administration, army
century
Nineteenth Britain Industry, political cohesion, finance and credit, navy, liberal
century norms, island location (easy to defend)
Twentieth United States Economic scale, scientific and technical leadership,
century universalistic culture, military forces and alliances, liberal
international regimes, hub of transnational communication
 Power Structure
The
organization of
people at
different ranks
in an
administrative
body