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Definition of TBI
• Hyperosmolar therapy
1. Mannitol – effective in lowering ICP
0.25-1g/kg BW
2. Hypertonic saline solution – effective,
no guideline exist
Pharmacologic Management of TBI
• Points to consider:
• TBI patients have larger Vd
• More rapid drug hepatic clearance
• Wide interpatient variability in the efficacy of
pharmacologic and non-pharmacologic
interventions un ICP control
• DVT prophylaxis is highly personalized
depending on:
a. CT findings
b. Neurologic process
c. ICP control
d. Possible need for surgery
TABLE 58-4 Evaluation of Therapeutic Outcomes
To summarize causes of secondary brain injury:
Hypotension
Hypoxaemia
Hypercarbia
Hyperthermia
Hyperglycaemia
Hypoglycaemia
Hyponatraemia
Seizures
Infection
Severity
• With mild TBI, the patient may remain conscious or may lose
consciousness for a few seconds or minutes.
• Other symptoms of mild TBI include; headache, vomiting, nausea, lack
of motor coordination, dizziness, difficulty balancing, lightheadedness,
blurred vision or tired eyes, ringing in the ears, bad taste in the mouth,
fatigue or lethargy, and changes in sleep patterns.
• Cognitive and emotional symptoms include; behavioral or mood
changes, confusion, and trouble with memory, concentration, attention,
or thinking.
A person with a moderate or severe TBI may have a headache
that does not go away, repeated vomiting or nausea, convulsions,
an inability to awaken,dilation of one or both pupils,slurred
speech, aphasia , dysarthria, weakness or numbness in the limbs,
loss of coordination, confusion, restlessness, or agitation.
Common long-term symptoms of moderate to severe TBI are
changes in appropriate social behaviour, deficits in social
judgment, and cognitive changes, especially problems with
sustained attention, processing speed, and executive functioning.
When the pressure within the skull,ICP rises too high, it can be deadly.
Signs of increased ICP include decreasing level of consciousness, paralysis or
weakness on one side of the body, and a blown pupil, one that fails to constrict in
response to light .
Cushing's triad, a slow heart ratewith high blood pressure and respiratory
depressionis a classic manifestation of significantly raised ICP.
Anisocoria, unequal pupil size, is another sign of serious TBI.
Abnormal posturing, a characteristic positioning of the limbs caused by severe
diffuse injury or high ICP, is an ominous sign.
Small children with moderate to severe TBI may have some of these symptoms.
Other signs seen in young children include persistent crying, inability to be
consoled, listlessness, refusal to nurse or eat and irritability.
Diagnosis
Posttraumatic seizures;
frequently occur after moderate or severe
TBI, they are usually general or partial.
Immediate seizures occur in the first 24 hours.
Early seizures occur in the first 2-7 days.
Late seizures occur after 7 days.
Temkin showed that prophylactic use of phenytoin is
effective during the first week after TBI.
He recommended discontinuation after 1 week if no
seizures develop because of its lack of effect in
preventing late seizures.
Hydrocephalus
If opioid toxicity is suspected (e.g., history of illicit drug use, apnea, bradypnea, small
pupils), naloxone 0.4 mg IV should be administered and repeated as necessary, up to 4
mg.
Appropriate laboratory tests [serum electrolytes, CBC with platelets, coagulation studies,
arterial blood gas, urinalysis, and urine toxicology / alcohol level (as appropriate)]
should be performed.
Monitoring:
This is essential in severe TBI.
It includes; ECG, invasive arterial blood pressure,
pulse oximetry, central venous pressure, urinary
catheter, naso-gastric vs oro-gastric tube (in case of
base skull fracture), frequent neurological
examination, temperature and capnography.
Resuscitation of Blood Pressure
& Oxygenation
Guideline
Hypotension (SBP < 90 mm Hg) or hypoxia
(apnea of cyanosis in the field or a PaO2 < 60 mm
Hg)must be scrupulously avoided, if possible, or
corrected immediately.
Hypotension (SBP < 90 mm Hg) occurred in 35%
of patients and was associated with a two fold increase in
mortality.
Option
The mean arterial pressure should be maintained
above 90 mm Hg throughout the patient’s course.
Maintenance of cerebral perfusion
pressure(CPP):
Option
The first priority for the head injured patient is
complete and rapid physiologic resuscitation.
No specific treatment should be directed at
intracranial hypertension in the absence of signs
of transtentorial herniation or progressive
neurologic deterioration not attributable to
extracranial explanations.
Indications for ICP Monitoring
Guideline
ICP monitoring is appropriate in severe head injury
patients with an abnormal CT, or a normal CT scan if 2 or
more of the following are noted on admission:
SBP < 90 mm Hg
Age > 40 years
Uni-/Bilateral motor posturing
Recommendation
In the current state of technology, the ventricular
catheter connected to an external strain gauge is
the most accurate, low cost, and reliable method
of monitoring ICP. It also allows therapeutic
CSF drainage.
ICP transduction via fiberoptic or strain gauge
devices placed in ventricular catheters provide
similar benefits but at a higher cost.
Controlling ICP
*Threshold of 20-25 mmHg may be used. Other values may be substituted in individual
Osmotherapy
Guideline
Mannitol is effective for control of raised ICP after
severe head injury.
Option
Effective doses range from 0.25 - 1.0 gm/kg
body weight.
Mannitol has several limitations;
• Hyperosmolality is a common problem, and a serum
osmolarity >320 mOsmol/L is associated with
adverse renal and central nervous system effects.
• Accumulation of mannitol in cerebral tissue may
lead to a rebound phenomenon and increased ICP.
• The indications for the use of mannitol prior to ICP
monitoring are signs of transtentorial herniation or
progressive neurological deterioration not
attributable to systemic pathology.
The most promising solution investigated as
possible substitute for mannitol; is hypertonic
saline (HTS).
Serum Na is maintained between 145 and 155
mmol/L in all patients with TBI.
To start osmotherapy,250-mL bolus of 3% HTS is
administered through a central venous cannula.
This dose is repeated until ICP is controlled or a
Na level of 155 mmol/L is achieved.
The serum Na is maintained at this level until ICP
has stabilized and then gradually allowed to
normalize.
The permeability of the BBB to sodium is low.HTS produces an osmotic
gradient between the intravascular and intracellular compartments, leading
to shrinkage of brain tissue (where BBB is intact) and therefore reducing
ICP.
The selectivity of the BBB to NaCl is more than that of mannitol making it
potentially a more effective osmotic drug.
HTS augments volume resuscitation and increases circulating BV, MAP,
and CPP.
HTS restores the neuronal membrane potential, maintains BBB integrity,
and modulates the inflammatory response by reducing adhesion of
leukocytes to endothelium.
If ICP control is still problematic after 3–4 days of
HTS therapy, boluses of furosemide are
administered in an effort to mobilize tissue Na.
Guideline
High-dose barbiturate therapy may be considered
in hemodynamically stable salvagable severe head
injury patients with intracranial hypertension
refractory to maximal medical and surgical ICP
lowering therapy.
Barbiturate Coma
Thiopental:
Loading:3mg/Kg bolus, followed by 10-20mg/Kg over 1 hr
Maintenance: 3-5 mg/Kg/hr
Therapeutic serum level: 6-8.5 mg/dl
Weaning: dosage is halved q 12 hr.
Monitoring
Cardiovascular
1. A-line: arterial BP, blood gases
2. PA catheter: CO, CI, SV, SVR, PVR, right heart filling pres., PCWP
3. Bladder catheter: urine output
Cerebrovascular and neurophysiological
1. ICP: maintain < 25 mmHg, preferably less
2. CPP: maintain > 70 mmHg
3. EEG: burst suppression, or cortical electrical silence optional
4. Brain temperature
5. Jugular bulb O2 monitor/ oxymeter catheter
6. Somatosensory or brainstem auditory evoked potentials (SSEP, BAEF)
Other monitoring
1. Core body temperature: NP, TM, E: 32 to 35 degrees C is acceptable
2. Serum barbiturate levels
3. nasogastric catheter: pH and output
4. intake and output
Therapy may be required for 7-14 days or longer, may be weaned after 3-6
days
1. Therapeutic end points
2. Success:
1. ICP < 20 mmHg for at least 48 hours, at a minimum
2. Resolution of intracranial mass effects or midline shift, preferably
3. ICP must remain controlled with conventional therapies
3. Failure:
1. Diagnosed brain death
2. Uncontrollable ICP despite adequate serum levels, EEG burst-
3. Suppression, or electrical silence
4. Intolerable side effects;
1. Hypotention not responsive to cardiac inotropes, peripheral vaso- pressors, or
intravenous fluid therapy (cardiac isotopes: dopamine, dobutamine,
epinephrine) (peripheral vasopressors: ephedrine, phenylephrine)
2. (IV fluids: packed RBCs, albumine, hetastarch, LR)
3. Progressive pulmonary dysfunction
4. Sepsis
Steroids
Standard
The use of steroids is not recommended for
improving outcome or reducing intracranial pressure
in patients with severe head injury.
Multiple prospective, randomized studies have
demonstrated no benefit in lowering ICP or
improvement in patient outcome through the use of
high-dose corticosteroids in acute TBI .
The use of methylprednisolone in patients with
moderate to severe TBI has been demonstrated to
increase mortality and is contraindicated.
Mechanical ventilation
Standard
In the absence of increased intracranial pressure (ICP), chronic
prolonged hyperventilation therapy (PaCO 2 of 25 mm Hg or less)
should be avoided after severe traumatic brain injury (TBI).
Guideline
The use of prophylactic hyperventilation (PaCO 2 < 35 mm Hg) therapy
during the first 24 hours after severe TBI should be avoided because it
can compromise cerebral perfusion during a time when cerebral blood
flow (CBF) is reduced.
Option
Hyperventilation therapy may be necessary for brief periods when there
is acute neurologic deterioration, or for longer periods if there is
intracranial hypertension refractory to sedation, paralysis,
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) drainage, and osmotic diuretics.
Hypercapnea is a potent cerebral vasodilator and
should be avoided in patients with cerebral edema
and elevated ICP.
Hyperventilation reduces ICP by causing cerebral
vasoconstriction and reducing cerebral blood flow.
Aggressive hyperventilation has been used for years in
the treatment of elevated ICP, but has been
demonstrated to have a deleterious outcome
Hyperventilation should be avoided in the first 24
hours post-injury when cerebral blood flow is often
critically reduced.
Hyperventilation may have a role as a temporizing
measure in the acute reduction of elevated ICP.
When hyperventilation is used for more than a brief
period of time, monitoring of cerebral oxygenation
using either jugular venous bulb oximetry (SjvO2) or
brain tissue oxygen tension (PbrO2) should be
considered.
Neuromuscular blockade
Standard
Prophylactic use of phenytoin, carbamazepine,
phenobarbital or valproate is not recommended
for preventing late post-traumatic seizures.
Control of seizures
With the deleterious effects of fever and hypothermia established for TBI
patients, many modalities of achieving either normothermia or therapeutic
hypothermia have been described .
Conventional cooling methods include skin exposure, ice, cold packs, infused
cold fluid, peritoneal lavage, and antipyretics. There are also many
commercially available cooling devices available. The Blanketrol
(Cincinnati Subzero, Cincinnati, OH) is a water-circulating blanket system
that utilizes two large cooling blankets, one beneath and one on top of the
Thepatient,
Arctic to
Sunmaintain the desired
(Medivance, patient temperature.
Jugenheim, Germany) circulates water through
gel pads that are applied to the patient’s back, abdomen, and thighs,
automatically controlled by a rectal thermometer. Several intravascular
cooling systems are also commercially available. These systems infuse cold
fluids via a closed-loop central venous catheter to maintain the desired
In body temperature.
a prospective study of ICU patients, Hoedemakers et al found superior
temperature control using water-circulating blankets, gel-pads, and
intravascular cooling as compared to conventional cooling techniques and
air-circulating blankets /
Nutrition
Guideline
Replacement of 140% of Resting Metabolic
Expenditure in non-paralyzed patients and
100% Resting Metabolic Expenditure in
paralyzed patients using enteral or parenteral
formulas containing at least 15% of calories as
protein by the seventh day after injury.
Prospective trial in 38 patients randomly assigned to
receive total parenteral nutrition (TPN) or standard
enteral nutrition (SEN).
The TPN group got full nutritional support by 7 days
whereas the SEN group did not. There were
significantly more deaths in the group that did not
receive full caloric replacement by the 7th day after
injury.
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