Chapter 2:

DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS AND

SYSTEMS
DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
 Representing Discrete-Time Signals
 Graphical Representation
x(n)
4

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

 Functional Representation
1 for n  1,3

x( n)  4 for n  2
0 elsewhere

DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
 Representing Discrete-Time Signals
 Tabular Representation

n … -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 …
x(n) … 0 0 0 1 4 1 0 …
 Sequence Representation
x(n)  {...0 ,0,0, 1, 4,1, 0,...}

or
x(n)  {0, 1, 4,1}
DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
 Some Fundamental Sequence
 Unit Sample Sequence [δ(n)]
1 n0
 (n )  
0 otherwise
 Unit Step Signal [u(n)]
1 n0
u ( n)  
0 n0
 . Exponential Signal
x(n) = an for all n
DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
 Signal Duration
 Finite-Length Sequence – discrete-time sequence that is
equal to zero for values of n outside a finite interval [N1,
N2].
 x, N 1  n  N 2
x(n )  
 0, otherwise

 Infinite-Length Sequence – signals that are not finite in

length, such as the unit step and exponential sequences.
 Right-Sided Sequence – any infinite-length sequence that is
equal to zero for all values of n < no for some integer no.
DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
 Signal Duration
 Infinite-Length Sequence
 Left-sided Sequence ­– an infinite-length sequence x(n),
for some integer no is equal to zero for all n > no. For
example, which is a time-reversed and delayed unit
step.
1, n  no
x ( n )  u ( n  no )  
0, n  no
 Two-Sided Sequence – an infinite-length that is neither
right-sided nor left-sided, such as the complex
exponential.
DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
 Simple Manipulation of Discrete-time
Signal
 Transformation of the Independent variable (time, n)
 Time Shifting. The independent variable, n, is replaced
by n – k, where k is an integer.
• If k is a positive integer, the signal is delayed.
• If k is negative integer, the signal is advanced.
Example 2.1

A signal x(n) is graphically illustrated in

figure below. Show a graphical
representation of the signal x(n – 3) and
x(n + 2).
x(n)
4

n
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
 x(n)
4

Example 2.1
3

1
n
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
5
Solution: n=2 n=-1
For x(n-3) x(2-3)=x(-1) x(-1-3)=x(-4)
n=0 Base on graph Base on graph
x(0-3)=x(-3) x(-1)= 3 x(-4)=0
Base on graph
x(-3)= 1 n=3 n=-2
x(3-3)=x(0) x(-2-3)=x(-5)
n=1 Base on graph Base on graph
x(1-3)=x(-2) x(0)= 4 x(-5)= -1
Base on graph …
x(-2)= 2
Example 2.1

Graphical representation of x(n-3)

x(n)
4

n x(n-3)
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 4

n
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Example 2.1

Graphical representation of x(n+2)

x(n)
4

n x(n+2)
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 4

n
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
 Simple Manipulation of Discrete-time
Signal
 Transformation of the Independent variable (time, n)
 Folding or Reflection of the signal about the time origin.
The time base is to be replaced n by –n .
Example 2.2
 Show the graphical representation of the
signal x(–n) where x(n) is the signal
illustrated below.
x(n)
4

1
n
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
 x(n)
4

Example 2.2 3
2

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
Solution: n=3
Let y(n)=x(-n) y(3)= x(-3)
n=0 n= -4
x(-3)= 2 n=-3
y(0)= x(0) y(-4)= x(4)
y(-3)= x(3)
Base on graph x(4)= 4
n=4 x(3)= 3
x(0)= 0
y(4)= x(-4)
n=-5
n=1 x(-4)= 0
y(-5)= x(5)
y(1)= x(-1) x(5)= 0
x(-1)= 2 n=-1 x(n)
y(-1)= x(1) 4
n=2 x(1)= 1
y(2)= x(-2) 3
x(-2)= 2 n= -2
y(-2)= x(2) 2
x(2)= 2
1 n

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
 Simple Manipulation of Discrete-time Signal
 Transformation of the Independent variable (time, n)
Folding or Reflection of the signal about the time origin.
Note:
Folding and Time-shifting a signal are not commutative.
Let TD = time delay operation
FD = folding operation
TDK[x(n)] = x(n–k), k>0
FD [x(n)] = x(–n)
Now,
TDk {FD[x(n)] }= TD{x(–n)} = x(–n+k)
Whereas,
FD {TDk [x(n)]} = FD{x(n–k)} = x(–n–k)
Example 2.3

Using Figure 2.2 show that folding and time-

shifting are not commutative.
 Time-advance the signal x(n) by 2 units in time
then fold.
 Fold the signal x(n) then time advance it by 2
units in time.
Example 2.3

Time-advance the signal x(n) by 2 units in

time then fold. x(-n+2)
4
x(n) 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
n -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x(n+2)
4

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
n
Example 2.3

Fold the signal x(n) then time advance it by 2

units in time. x(-n-2)

4
x(n) 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
n -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
x(-n)
4

1 n
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
 Simple Manipulation of Discrete-time Signal
 Transformation of the Independent variable (time, n)
 Time-Scaling. The independent variable time, n, is
replaced by μn, where μ is an integer.
The signal y(n) = x(μn) is a time-scaled version of x(n).
If |μ| > 1, we are SPEEDING UP or DOWN SAMPLING
x(n) by a factor of μ
If |μ| < 1, we are SLOWING DOWN or UP SAMPLING
x(n) by a factor of μ.
Example 2.4
Show the graphical representation of the signal y(n) =
x(2n) where x(n) is the signal illustrated below.

x(n)

4
3

-7 -6 -5

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n

–1

–2
–3
 x(n)
4
3
2

Example 2.4 -7 - 6 -5
1

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
n
–1

y(n)=x(2n) n=3 n=-2

–2
–3

n=0 y(3)=x(2*3)=x(6) y(-2) =x(2*(-2))

y(0)=x(0)=4 =4 =x(-4)=0

n=1 n=4 n=-3

y(1)=x(2*1)=4 y(4)=x(2*4)=x(8) y(-3) =x(2*(-3))
=0 =x(-6)=-2
n=2
y(2)=x(2*2)=x(4) n=-1 n=-4
=4 y(-1)= x(2*(-1)) y(-4)= x(2*(-4))
=x(-2)=2 =x(-8)=0
Example 2.4
x(n)

4
3

-7 -6 -5

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n

–1

–2
–3 y(n)=x(2n
)
4

-2 -1 0 1 2 3 n

–2
DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
 Simple Manipulation of Discrete-time
Signal
 Amplitude Modifications
 Amplitude scaling
y(n) = A x(n)
 Addition of two signals
y(n) = x1(n) + x2(n)
 Multiplication of two signals
y(n) = x1(n) x2(n)
DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEMS
 A device or algorithm that operates on a discrete-time
signal, according to some well-defined rules, to produce
another discrete-time signal.
y(n) = T[ x(n)]
where: T = denotes the transformation
x(n) = input signal
y(n) = output signal

x(n) Discrete- y(n)

time system

Block diagram representation of discrete time signal

DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEMS
Input-Output Description of Systems
– consist of a mathematical
expression or a rule, which explicitly
defines the relation between the input
and output signals.
General input-output relationship
T
x(n) y(n)
Example 2-5
 Determine the response of the following
systems to the input signal
| n | for  3  n  3
x (n )  
 0 otherwise
 y(n) = x(n)
 y(n) = x(n–1)
 y(n) = x(n+1)
 y(n) = ⅓ [x(n+1) + x(n) + x(n–1)
 y(n) = max [ x(n+1), x(n), x(n–1)]
 n
y (n )   x(k )  x(n)  x(n  1)  x(n  2)  ...
k  
 | n | for  3  n  3
Example 2-5 x (n )  
 0 otherwise

x(n)={3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
↑
a. y(n) = x(n) ={3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
↑
b. y(n) = x(n–1) ={3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
↑
c. y(n) = x(n+1) ={3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
↑
 | n | for  3  n  3
Example 2-5 x (n )  
 0 otherwise

x(n)={3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
↑
d. y(n) = ⅓ [x(n+1) + x(n) + x(n–1)]
x(n-1)={3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
↑
x(n)={3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
↑
x(n+1)={3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
↑

y(n)= ⅓{3,5,6,3,2,3,6,5,3}={1,5/3,2,1,2/3,1,2,5/3,1}
↑ ↑
 | n | for  3  n  3
Example 2-5 x (n )  
 0 otherwise

x(n)={3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
↑
e. y(n) = max [x(n+1), x(n),x(n–1)]
x(n-1)={3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
↑
x(n)={3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
↑
x(n+1)={3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
↑

y(n)= {3,3,3,2,1,2,3,3,3}
↑
 | n | for  3  n  3
Example 2-5 x (n )  
 0 otherwise

x(n)={3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
↑
f. n
y (n )   x(k )  x(n)  x(n  1)  x(n  2)  ...
k  

y(n) = {3, 5, 6, 6, 7, 9, 12, 12,…}

↑
DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEMS
 Accumulator – Computes the running sum of
all the past input up to the present time.
n n 1
y (n )   x (k )   x ( k )  x (n )
k   k  

y(n) = y(n–1) + x(n)

 Initial condition – summarizes the effect of
all previous inputs to the system
 Initially relaxed – had no excitation prior to
the present time instant and the initial
condition is zero.
DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEMS
 Block Diagram Representation of Discrete-Time Systems
Memoryless – a system is said to be memoryless if the output at any
time n = no depends only on the input at time n = no.
a. Adder. Performs the addition of two signal sequences to form
another sequence. Memoryless operation.
x1(n)
y(n)= x1(n) + x2(n)
+

x2n)

b. Constant multiplier. Applies a scale factor on the input x(n). Also

a memoryless operation.
a y(n) =ax(n)
x(n)
DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEMS
 Block Diagram Representation of Discrete-Time Systems

c. Signal Multiplier Multiplication of two signal sequences to form another

sequence. Also a memoryless operation
x1(n) y(n)= x1(n) x2(n)
x

x2(n)

d. Unit delay Element. A special system that simply delays the signal passing
through it by one sample. It requires memory.

x(n) y(n)= x(n–1)

z
–1

e. Unit advance Element. A special system that simply moves the signal
passing through it by one sample. It requires memory.
x(n) y(n)= x(n+1)
z
Example 2-6
 Using the basic building blocks, sketch the
block diagram representation of the
discrete-time system described by the
input-output relation.
y(n)= ¼ y(n–1) + ½ x(n) + ½ x(n–1)
Classification of Discrete-time Systems

1. Static vs. Dynamic Systems

2. Time-Invariant vs. Time Variant Systems
3. Linear vs. Nonlinear Systems
4. Causal vs. Non-Causal Systems
5. Stable vs. Unstable
Classification of Discrete-time Systems

1. Static vs. Dynamic Systems

 Static
– a discrete-time system that is
memoryless
 Dynamic – a discrete-time system that requires
memory.
Example 2-7
 Determine whether the following signals
are static or dynamic:
 y1(n) = ax(n) Static
 y2(n) = x(n) + 3x(n–1) Dynamic
n

 y3(n) =  x (k ) Dynamic


 y4(n) = nx(n) b x3(n) Static

 y5(n) = ax(n2) Dynamic
Classification of Discrete-time Systems

2. Time-Invariant vs. Time-variant Systems

 Time-Invariant System – input-output
characteristics do not change with time.
Let y(n) be the response of they system to an arbitrary input x(n).
The system is said to be time invariant if, for any delay no, the
response to x(n–no) is y(n–no).

 Time-Variant System – the input-output

characteristics do vary with time.
Example 2-8
 Determine if the system equations are
time-invariant or time variant.
 y(n) = x(n) – x(n–1) Time Invariant
 y(n) = nx(n) Time Variant
 y(n) = x(–n) Time Variant
 y(n) = x2(n) Time Invariant
Classification of Discrete-time Systems

3. Linear vs. Nonlinear Systems

 Linear System – one that satisfies the superposition principle.

 Superposition Principle – requires that the response of the system

to a weighted sum of signals be equal to the corresponding
weighted sum of the responses of the system to each of the
individual input signals.
– The response to the sum of inputs is equal to the sum of the inputs
individually.
T[a1x1(n) + a2 x2(n)] = a1T[x1(n)] + a2T [x2(n)]

 Nonlinear System – a relaxed system produces a nonzero

output with a zero input and does not satisfy the superposition
principle.
Example 2-9
Determine if the systems described by the
following input-output equations are linear
or nonlinear.
 y1(n) = nx(n) Linear
 y2(n) = x(n2) Linear

 y3(n) = x2(n) Nonlinear

 y4(n) = Ax(n) + B Linear

 y5(n) = ex(n) Nonlinear
Classification of Discrete-time Systems

4. Causal vs. Noncausal Systems

 Causal System – a system whose output at any
time n depends on the present and past inputs
but DOES NOT depend on future inputs.
 Noncausal System – a system has an output
depends not only on present and past inputs
but ALSO on future inputs.
Example 2-10
Determine if the system is causal or
noncausal.
 y(n) = x(n) – x(n-1) Causal
 y(n) = x(n) + 3x(n+4) Noncausal
 y(n) = x(n 2) Noncausal
 y(n) = ax(n) Causal
 y(n) = x(2n) Noncausal
 y(n) = x(–n) Noncausal
n
 y ( n)   x(k ) Causal
k  
Classification of Discrete-time Systems

5. Stable vs. Unstable Systems

 Stable
System – it follows BIBO (Bounded Input
– Bounded Output). Every bounded input
produces a bounded output.

 UnstableSystem – bounded input sequence

does not produce a bounded output.
Example 2-11
Consider the following input-output equations
 y(n) = x(n-1) Stable
 y(n) = cos [x(n)] Unstable
 y(n) = y2(n-1) + x(n) Unstable

As an input sequence
x(n) = Cδ(n)
where: C is a constant and the system is initially
relaxed
Determine if the system is stable or unstable