03 - Metal Casting PP

MENG 210
Manufacturing Processes I
Metal Casting
FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL CASTING
1. Overview of Casting
Technology
2. Heating and Pouring
3. Solidification and
Cooling
Note 3 - 2 UOB, Mechanical Engineering Department, Dr Osama Al-Jamal, ©2019 Metal Casting
Solidification Processes
 Processes in which starting work material is either a

liquid or is in a highly plastic condition, and a part is
created through solidification of the material
 Solidification processes can be classified according
to engineering material processed:
 Metals
 Ceramics, specifically glasses
 Polymers and polymer matrix composites (PMCs)
Expendable-mold Sand casting
casting
metals Other casting

processes
Permanent-mold
casting
Solidification Ceramics
Processes Glassworking
Extrusion and related
processes
Injection
molding
Processing of
polymers and Other molding
PMCs processes
Special processes for

PMCs
Classification of solidification processes

Casting
 Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or

other force into a mold where it solidifies in the
shape of the mold cavity
 The term casting also applies to the part made in
the process
 Steps in casting seem simple:
1. Melt the metal
2. Pour it into a mold
3. Let it solidify
Casting
 Casting of ingot – associated with the primary metals

industries
 Casting of Shaping – production of more complex

geometries that are much closer to the final desired
shape of the product
Advantages of Casting
 Can create complex part geometries

 Can create both external and internal shapes
 Some casting processes are net shape; others are
near net shape
 Can produce very large parts – more than 100 tons
 Some casting methods are suited to mass
production
Disadvantages of Casting
 Limitations on mechanical properties
 Porosity
 Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for

some processes; e.g., sand casting
 Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten

metals
 Environmental problems
Parts Made by Casting
 Big parts
 Engine blocks and heads for automotive vehicles,
wood burning stoves, machine frames, railway
wheels, pipes, church bells, big statues, pump
housings
 Small parts
 Dental crowns, jewelry, frying pans
 All varieties of metals can be cast, ferrous and

nonferrous – that can be heated to the liquid state
Typical Cast Parts
(c)
(a)
(b) (d)
Figure 11.1 (a) Typical gray-iron castings used in automobiles, including the transmission valve body (left) and the hub rotor with
disk-brake cylinder (front). (b) A cast transmission housing. (c) The Polaroid digital camera. (d) A two-piece Polaroid camera
case made by the hot-chamber die-casting process.
10
Overview of Casting Technology
 Casting is usually performed in a foundry

 Foundry is a factory equipped for making molds,
melting and handling molten metal, performing the
casting process, and cleaning the finished casting
 Workers who perform casting are called Fundrymen
The Mold in Casting
 Contains cavity whose geometry determines part

shape
 Actual size and shape of cavity must be slightly
oversized to allow for shrinkage of metal during
solidification and cooling
 Different metals undergo different amounts of

shrinkage
 Molds are made of a variety of materials,

including sand, plaster, ceramic, and metal
Open Molds and Closed Molds
Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container in the

shape of the desired part; and (b) closed mold, in which
the mold geometry is more complex and requires a
gating system (passageway) leading into the cavity
Two Categories of Casting Processes
1. Expendable mold processes – uses an expendable

mold which must be destroyed to remove casting
 Mold materials: sand, plaster and binders
2. Permanent mold processes – uses a permanent

mold which can be used over and over to produce
many castings
 Made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic
refractory material
Advantages and Disadvantages
 Expendable mold processes

 More complicated geometries are possible
 Permanent mold processes

 Part shapes are limited by the need to open the mold
 more economic in high production operations
Sand-Casting Mold
Cross-sectional view of a typical sand-casting mold
Sand Casting Mold Terms
 Mold consists of two halves:

 Cope – upper half of mold
 Drag – bottom half
 Mold halves are contained in a box, called a flask

 The two halves separate at the parting line
Forming the Mold Cavity
 Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a

pattern, which has the shape of the part
 When the pattern is removed, the remaining cavity of
the packed sand has desired shape of cast part
 The pattern is usually oversized to allow for
shrinkage of metal during solidification and cooling
 Sand for the mold is moist and contains a binder to
maintain its shape
Use of a Core in the Mold Cavity
 The mold cavity provides the external surfaces of the

cast part
 In addition, a casting may have internal surfaces,
determined by a core, placed inside the mold cavity
to define the interior geometry of part
 In sand casting, cores are generally made of sand
Gating System
 Channel through which molten metal flows into cavity

from outside of mold
 Consists of a downsprue, through which metal enters
a runner leading to the main cavity
 At the top of downsprue, a pouring cup is often used
to minimize splash and turbulence as the metal flows
into downsprue
Riser
Rising
Reservoir
system in the mold which is a source of liquid
advantages:
metal to compensate for shrinkage of the part during
 Feeding the cast
solidification
 Indicates the mold is filled
  The
Helpsriser must
the air be out
to come designed to freeze after the main
of the mold
 casting in ordergases
Helps dissolved to satisfy
to come itsout
function
the mold
Heating furnaces
 Heating furnaces are used to heat the metal to

molten temperature sufficient for casting
 The heat energy required is the sum of:
1. heat to raise temperature to melting point
2. heat of fusion to convert from solid to liquid
3. heat to raise molten metal to desired

temperature for pouring
Mathematical Expression
 Heat energy required in casting process (H) can be

expressed as:
H = V[Cs(Tm-T0)+ Hf + Cl(Tp-Tm) (J)

 : density, g/cm3
V : volume of metal being heated, cm3
Cs : weight specific heat for solid metal, J/g·ºC
Tm : melting temperature of metal, ºC
T0 : starting temperature – usually ambient, ºC
Hf : heat of fusion, J/g
Cl : weight specific heat of liquid metal, J/g·ºC
Tp : pouring temperature, ºC
Example
 One cubic meter of a certain eutectic alloy is heated in a
crucible from room temperature to 100 ºC above its
melting point for casting. The alloy’s density = 7.5 g/mm3,
melting point 800ºC, weight specific heat = 0.33 J/g.ºC in
the solid state and 0.29 J/g.ºC in the liquid state; and
heat of fusion = 160 J/g. How much heat energy must be
added to accomplish the heating, assume no losses?
 Assume, T0 = 25 ºC and density of metal at liquid and

solid states are same.
H = 9V[Cs(Tm-T0)+ Hf + Cl(Tp-Tm)
 H = (7.5×10 ) [0.33(800-25) + 160 + 0.29(900-800)]
= 3335×106 J
Pouring the Molten Metal
 For this step to be successful, metal must flow into

all regions of the mold, most importantly the main
cavity, before solidifying
 Factors that determine success
 Pouring temperature
 Pouring rate
 Turbulence
Pouring Temperature
 The temperature of the molten metal as it introduced

to the mold
 Superheat
 Temperature differences between pouring and
freezing temperatures
 Amount of heat that must be removed from
molten metal between pouring and when
solidification commences
Pouring Rate
 Volumetric rate at which the molten metal is poured

into the mold
 If the rate is too slow
 Metal will chill and freeze before filling the cavity
 If the rate is excessive
 Turbulence can become a series problem
Turbulence
 Flow is agitated and irregular rather than smooth and

streamlined (as in laminar)
 It should be avoided during pouring …. why?
 It tends to accelerate the formation of metal
oxides that can become entrapped during
solidification …. degrading the quality of the
casting
 Aggravates mold erosion – gradual wearing away
of mold surfaces due to impact of flowing molten
metal
Fluidity
 Fluidity describes the flow characteristics of the

molten metal
 It measures the capability of a metal to flow into and
fill the mold before freezing
 Fluidity is the inverse of viscosity
 As viscosity increases, fluidity decreases
 Factors affecting fluidity
 Pouring temperature relative to melting point
 Metal composition
 Viscosity of the liquid metal
 Heat transfer to the surroundings
Solidification of Metals
 Transformation of molten metal back into solid state

 Solidification differs depending on whether the metal
is;
 a pure element or
 an alloy
Cooling Curve for a Pure Metal
A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature

equal to its freezing point (same as melting point)
Cooling curve for a pure metal during casting
Solidification of Pure Metals
 Due to chilling action of mold
wall, a thin skin of solid metal is
formed at the interface
immediately after pouring
 Skin thickness increases to
form a shell around the molten
metal as solidification
progresses
 Rate of freezing depends on
heat transfer into mold, as well
as thermal properties of the thin skin of solid
metal mold wall metal
Metallic Grain Formation and Growth
during Solidification Process
large columnar grains

oriented toward
randomly oriented
grains of small
size
Characteristic grain structure in a casting of a pure metal, showing

randomly oriented grains of small size near the mold wall, and
large columnar grains oriented toward the center of the casting
Solidification of Alloys
Most alloys freeze over a temperature range rather
than at a single temperature
(a) Phase
diagram for a
copper‑nickel
alloy system and
(b) associated
cooling curve for
a 50% Ni‑50%Cu
composition
during casting
Metallic Grain Formation and Growth
during Solidification Process
segregation of alloying
components
Characteristic grain structure in an alloy casting, showing

segregation of alloying components in center of casting
Solidification Time
 Solidification takes time

 Total solidification time TTS = time required for casting
to solidify after pouring (mold or riser)
 TTS depends on size and shape of casting by
relationship known as Chvorinov's Rule
n
V 
TTS  Cm  
 A
where, TTS = total solidification time (min);
V = volume of the casting (cm3);
A = surface area of casting (cm2);
n = exponent with typical value = 2; and
Cm is mold constant (min/cm2)
Mold Constant in Chvorinov's Rule
 Mold constant Cm depends on:

 Mold material (specific heat, thermal conductivity,
…)
 Thermal properties of casting metal
 Pouring temperature relative to melting point
 Value of Cm for a given casting operation can be

based on experimental data from previous
operations carried out using same mold material,
metal, and pouring temperature, even though the
shape of the part may be quite different
What Chvorinov's Rule Tells Us V  n
TTS  Cm  
 A
 Casting with a higher volume‑to‑surface area ratio
cools and solidifies more slowly than one with a
lower ratio
 To feed molten metal to main cavity, TTS for riser
must be greater than TTS for main casting
 Since mold constants of riser and casting will be

equal, design the riser to have a larger
volume‑to‑area ratio so that the main casting
solidifies first
 This minimizes the effects of shrinkage
Shrinkage in Solidification and Cooling
Shrinkage of a cylindrical casting during solidification and cooling:

(0) starting level of molten metal immediately after pouring;
(1) reduction in level caused by liquid contraction during cooling
(dimensional reductions are exaggerated for clarity)
Shrinkage in Solidification and Cooling
(2) reduction in height and formation of shrinkage cavity (pipe)

caused by solidification shrinkage; (3) further reduction in height
and diameter due to thermal contraction during cooling of solid
metal (dimensional reductions are exaggerated for clarity)
Solidification Shrinkage
 Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase

has a higher density than the liquid phase
 Thus, solidification causes a reduction in volume per
unit weight of metal
 Exception: cast iron with high C content
 Graphitization during final stages of freezing
causes expansion that counteracts volumetric
decrease associated with phase change
Shrinkage Allowance
 Patternmakers account for solidification shrinkage

and thermal contraction by making mold cavity
oversized
 Amount by which mold is made larger relative to final
casting size is called pattern shrinkage allowance
 Casting dimensions are expressed linearly, so
allowances are applied accordingly
Directional Solidification
 To minimize damaging effects of shrinkage (shrink

defects), it is desirable for regions of the casting most
distant from the liquid metal supply (riser) to freeze
first and for solidification to progress from these
remote regions toward the riser(s)
 Thus, molten metal is continually available from
risers to prevent shrinkage voids
 The term directional solidification describes this

aspect of freezing and methods by which it is
controlled
IS NOT A
DIRECTIONAL
SOLIDIFICATION
Case
Solidification Ends
here
End
IS A
DIRECTIONAL
SOLIDIFICATION
Case
Start
Solidification Starts
Note 3 - 44 UOB, Mechanical Engineering Department, Dr Osama Al-Jamal, ©2019
here Metal Casting
Achieving Directional Solidification
 Desired directional solidification is achieved using

Chvorinov's Rule to design the casting itself, its
orientation in the mold, and the riser system that
feeds it
 Locate sections of the casting with lower V / A ratios
away from riser, so freezing occurs first in these
regions, and the liquid metal supply for the rest of the
casting remains open
 Chills ‑ internal or external heat sinks that cause
rapid freezing in certain regions of the casting
External Chills
 (a) External chill to encourage rapid freezing of the

molten metal in a thin section of the casting; and (b) the
likely result if the external chill were not used
Riser Design
 Riser is waste metal that is separated from the

casting and remelted to make more castings
 To minimize waste in the unit operation, it is
desirable for the volume of metal in the riser to be a
minimum
 Since the geometry of the riser is normally selected
to maximize the V / A ratio, this allows riser volume
to be reduced to the minimum possible value
Example (10.3 p. 209)
 A cylindrical riser must be designed for a sand-

casting mold. The casting itself is a steel rectangular
plate with dimensions 7.5 cm  12.5 cm  2.0 cm.
Previous observation have indicated that the total
solidification time (TTS) for this casting = 1.6 min. The
cylinder for the riser will have a diameter-to-height
ratio = 1.0. Determine the dimensions of the riser so
that its TTS = 2.0 min.
METAL CASTING PROCESSES
 Sand Casting
1. Patterns and cores
2. Molds and mold making
3. Casting operation
Two Categories of Casting Processes
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to
remove part
 Advantage: more complex shapes possible
 Disadvantage: production rates often limited by
time to make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal

and can be used to make many castings
 Advantage: higher production rates
 Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open
mold
Overview of Sand Casting-explained
 Most widely used casting process, accounting for a

significant majority of total tonnage cast
 Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including
metals with high melting temperatures, such as steel,
nickel, and titanium
 Castings range in size from small to very large
 Production quantities from one to millions
A large sand casting weighing over 680 kg for an air
compressor frame
Steps in Sand Casting-explained
1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold

2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
 Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to
improve metallurgical properties
Making the Sand Mold-covered
 The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing

sand around a pattern, then separating the mold into
two halves and removing the pattern
 The mold must also contain gating and riser system
 If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be
included in mold
 A new sand mold must be made for each part
produced
Sand Casting Production Sequence
 Steps in the production sequence in sand casting

 The steps include not only the casting operation but
also pattern‑making and mold‑making
The Pattern-covered
 A full‑sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to

account for shrinkage and machining allowances in
the casting
 Pattern materials:
 Wood - common material because it is easy to
work, but it warps
 Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much
longer
 Plastic - compromise between wood and metal
Types of patternsTypes
used inof Patterns
sand casting:
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern: consists of two pieces
(c) match‑platepattern:consists of the two split patterns
attached to opposite sides of a plate
(d) cope and drag pattern
Core
 Full‑scale model of interior surfaces of part
 It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring
 The molten metal flows and solidifies between the
mold cavity and the core to form the casting's
external and internal surfaces
 Usually made of sand, compacted to into desired
shape
 May require supports to hold it in position in the mold
cavity during pouring, called chaplets
 Chaplets are metal supports of various designs used
to hold the core in place in the sand mold
Core in Mold
(a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets

(b) possible chaplet design
(c) casting with internal cavity
Desirable Mold Properties
What properties determine the quality of a sand mold for sand casting?
 Strength ‑ to maintain shape and resist erosion
 Permeability ‑ to allow hot air and gases to pass
through voids in sand
 Thermal stability ‑ to resist cracking on contact with
molten metal
 Collapsibility ‑ ability to give way and allow casting to
shrink without cracking the casting
 Reusability ‑ can sand from broken mold be reused
to make other molds?
Foundry Sands
 Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals

 Good refractory properties ‑ capacity to stand up
high temperatures
 Small grain size yields better surface finish on the
cast part
 Large grain size is more permeable, allowing gases
to escape during pouring
 Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to
interlocking, compared to round grains
 Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce
permeability
Binders Used with Foundry Sands
 Sand is held together by a mixture of water and

bonding clay
 Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
 Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:

 Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
 Inorganic binders (eg: sodium silicate and
phosphate)
 Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture

to increase strength and/or permeability
Types of Sand Mold
 Green‑sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and water;

 “Green" means mold contains moisture at time of
pouring
 Dry‑sand mold - organic binders rather than clay

 And mold is baked to improve strength
 Skin‑dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of a

green‑sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm, using
torches or heating lamps
Buoyancy in Sand Casting Operation
 During pouring, buoyancy of the molten metal tends

to displace the core, which can cause casting to be
defective
 Force tending to lift core = weight of displaced liquid
less the weight of core itself
Fb = Wm ‑ Wc
where,
Fb = buoyancy force (N)
Wm = weight of molten metal displaced (N)
Wc = weight of core (N)
Example
 A sand core has a volume = 1875 cm3 and is located

inside a sand mold cavity. Determine the buoyancy force
tending to lift the core during pouring of molten lead into
the mold. Density of the sand core = 1.6 g/cm3
 Solution:
 Density of the sand core = 1.6 g/cm3
 Mass of the core =(VXD)1875  1.6 = 3000 g = 3.0 kg
 Density of lead = 11.3 g/cm3 (Table 11.1)
 Mass of lead displaced by core = 1875  11.3= 21.19 kg
 Difference = 21.19 – 3.0 = 18.19 kg
 Buoyancy force, Fb = 18.19  9.81 = 178.4 N
nded
Polys
Other Expendable Mold
tyren
e Casting Processes
Proce
ss
 Inves
tment
Casti
ng
 Plast
er
Mold
and
Cera
mic
Mold
Casti
12/3/21
Note 3ng
- 68 UOB, Mechanical Engineering Department, Dr Osama Al-Jamal, ©2019 Metal Casting
Classification of Casting Processes
 Expendable mold
 Sand casting.
 Shell-mold casting.
 Investment casting.
 Permanent mold:
 Hot chamber die-casting.
 Cold chamber die-casting.
 Centrifugal casting.
69
1. Shell Molding
2. Permanent Mold Casting Processes
Shell Molding
 Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of

sand held together by thermosetting resin binder
Steps in shell‑molding:
1) a match‑plate or
cope‑and‑drag metal
pattern is heated and
placed over a box
containing sand mixed
with thermosetting
resin
Shell Molding
 Steps in shell‑molding:
2) box is inverted so that
sand and resin fall
onto the hot pattern,
causing a layer of the
mixture to partially
cure on the surface to
form a hard shell
3) box is repositioned so
that loose uncured
particles drop away
Shell Molding
4) sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to
complete curing
5) shell mold is stripped from the pattern;
Shell Molding
6) two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported by
sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished
7) the finished casting with sprue removed
 Advantages of shell molding:
Advantages and Disadvantages
 Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish (~2.5 m)
 Good dimensional accuracy (0.25 mm) -

machining often not required
 Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
 Can be mechanized for mass production
 Disadvantages:
 More expensive metal pattern
 Difficult to justify for small quantities
Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)
12/3/21
A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to make mold, after
which wax is melted away prior to pouring molten metal
 "Investment" comes from one of the less familiar definitions of "invest" - "to
cover completely," which refers to coating of refractory material around wax
pattern
 It is a precision casting process - capable of castings of high accuracy and
intricate detail
Figure 11.8 ‑ Steps in investment casting:
(1) wax patterns are produced
(2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree
12/3/21
(3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material
(4) the full mold is formed by covering the coated tree with
sufficient refractory material to make it rigid
12/3/21
(5) the mold is held in an inverted position and heated to melt the
wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity
12/3/21
Figure 11.8 ‑ Steps in investment
casting:
(6) the mold is preheated to a
high temperature, which
ensures that all contaminants
are eliminated from the mold;
it also permits the liquid metal
to flow more easily into the
detailed cavity; the molten
metal is poured; it solidifies
12/3/21
(7) the mold is broken away from the finished casting -
parts are separated from the sprue
12/3/21
Advantages and Disadvantages of Investment
Casting
12/3/21
 Advantages:
 Parts of great complexity can be cast
 Close dimensional control and good surface finish
 Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
 Additional machining is not normally required ‑ this is a net shape process
 Disadvantages
 Many processing steps are required
 Relatively expensive process
Figure 11 9 ‑ A one‑piece compressor stator with 108 separate
airfoils made by investment casting (courtesy Howmet Corp )
12/3/21
Permanent Mold Casting Processes
 Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting:

a new mold is required for every casting
 In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many
times
 The processes include:
 Basic permanent mold casting
 Die casting
 Centrifugal casting
The Basic Permanent Mold Process
 Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections

designed for easy, precise opening and closing
 Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are
commonly made of steel or cast iron
 Molds used for casting steel must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high pouring
temperatures
 Cores can be used in permanent molds to form
interior surfaces in cast product
Permanent Mold Casting
 Steps in permanent mold casting:

 (1) mold is preheated and coated
Permanent Mold Casting
Steps in permanent mold casting:

(2) cores (if used) are inserted and mold is closed
(3) molten metal is poured into the mold, where it solidifies
Advantages and Limitations
 Advantages of permanent mold casting:

 Good dimensional control and surface finish
 More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal
mold results in a finer grain structure, so castings
are stronger
 Limitations:
 Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
 Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of need to open the mold
 High cost of mold
Applications of Permanent Mold Casting
 Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high

volume production and can be automated
accordingly
 Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and
certain castings for aircraft
 Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper‑base alloys, and cast iron
Die Casting
 A permanent mold casting process in which molten

metal is injected into mold cavity under high pressure
(7 to 350 MPa)
 Pressure is maintained during solidification, then
mold is opened and part is removed
 Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence
the name die casting
 Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is
what distinguishes this from other permanent mold
processes
Die Casting Machines
 Designed to hold and accurately close two mold

halves and keep them closed while liquid metal is
forced into cavity
 Two main types:
1. Hot‑chamber machine
2. Cold‑chamber machine
Hot-Chamber Die Casting
 Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects

liquid metal under high pressure into the die
 High production rates - 500 parts per hour not
uncommon
 Applications limited to low melting‑point metals that
do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components
 Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium
Hot-Chamber Die Casting
 Cycle in hot‑chamber casting:
 (1) with die closed and plunger  (2) plunger forces metal in chamber
withdrawn, molten metal flows to flow into die, maintaining
into the chamber pressure during cooling and
solidification
Cold‑Chamber Die Casting Machine
 Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from

external melting container, and a piston injects metal
under high pressure into die cavity
 High production buttextnot usually as fast
Click to add as
hot‑chamber machines because of pouring step
 Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium
alloys
 Advantages of hot‑chamber process favor its use on
low melting‑point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)
Cold‑Chamber Die Casting
 Cycle in cold‑chamber casting:
with die closed and ram withdrawn, molten ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining
metal is poured into the chamber pressure during cooling and solidification.
Molds for Die Casting
 Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging

steel
 Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory
qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron
 Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it
opens
 Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent
sticking
Advantages and Limitations
 Advantages of die casting:

 Economical for large production quantities
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Thin sections are possible
 Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good
strength to casting
 Disadvantages:
 Generally limited to metals with low metal points
 Part geometry must allow removal from die
Centrifugal Casting
A family of casting processes in which the mold is

rotated at high speed so centrifugal force distributes
molten metal to outer regions of die cavity
 The group includes:
 True centrifugal casting
 Semi-centrifugal casting
 Centrifuge casting
True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce

a tubular part
 In some operations, mold rotation commences after
pouring rather than before
 Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
 Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal,
hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is (theoretically)
perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces
True Centrifugal Casting
Setup for true centrifugal casting
Semi-centrifugal Casting
Semi-Centrifugal force is used to produce solid

castings rather than tubular parts
 Molds are designed with risers at center to supply
feed metal
 Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer
sections than at center of rotation
 Often used on parts in which center of casting is
machined away, thus eliminating the portion where
quality is lowest
 Examples: wheels and pulleys
Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities located away from

axis of rotation, so that molten metal poured into mold
is distributed to these cavities by centrifugal force
 Used for smaller parts
 Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other
centrifugal casting methods
Semi-centrifugal Casting and Casting by
Centrifuging
(a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes can be cast by this
process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at the periphery of the
machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal force.
Furnaces for Casting Processes
 Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:

 Cupolas
 Direct fuel‑fired furnaces
 Crucible furnaces
 Electric‑arc furnaces
 Induction furnaces
Cupolas
Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with tapping

spout near base
 Used only for cast irons
 Although other furnaces are also used, the
largest tonnage of cast iron is melted in cupolas
 The "charge," consisting of iron, coke, flux, and
possible alloying elements, is loaded through a
charging door located less than halfway up height
of cupola
Direct Fuel‑Fired Furnaces
Small open‑hearth in which charge is heated by

natural gas fuel burners located on side of furnace
 Furnace roof assists heating action by reflecting
flame down against charge
 At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release molten
metal
 Generally used for nonferrous metals such as
copper‑base alloys and aluminum
Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with burning fuel

mixture
 Sometimes called indirect fuel‑fired furnaces
 Container (crucible) is made of refractory material
or high‑temperature steel alloy
 Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass,
and alloys of zinc and aluminum
 Three types used in foundries: (a) lift‑out type, (b)
stationary, (c) tilting
Crucible Furnaces
Three types of crucible furnaces: (a) lift‑out crucible, (b)

stationary pot, from which molten metal must be ladled, and
(c) tilting-pot furnace.
Electric‑Arc Furnaces
Charge is melted by heat generated from an electric

arc
 High power consumption, but electric‑arc furnaces
can be designed for high melting capacity
 Used primarily for melting steel
Electric arc furnace for steelmaking
Induction Furnaces
Uses alternating current passing through a coil to

develop magnetic field in metal
 Induced current causes rapid heating and melting
 Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action
in liquid metal
 Since metal does not contact heating elements,
environment can be closely controlled to produce
molten metals of high quality and purity
 Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are
common applications in foundry work
Induction Furnace
Induction furnace
Ladles
 Moving molten metal from melting furnace to mold is

sometimes done using crucibles
 More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles
Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and (b) two‑man ladle
1. Steps after Solidification

2. Casting Quality
3. Metals for Casting
4. Product Design Considerations
Steps After Solidification
 Trimming
 Removing the core
 Surface cleaning
 Inspection
 Repair, if required
 Heat treatment
Trimming
 Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting‑line

flash, fins, chaplets, and any other excess metal
from the cast part
 For brittle casting alloys and when cross sections are
relatively small, attachments can be broken off
 Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack‑sawing,
band‑sawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or various
torch cutting methods are used
Removing the Core
 If cores have been used, they must be removed

 Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of
casting as the binder deteriorates
 In some cases, they are removed by shaking
casting, either manually or mechanically
 In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically
dissolving bonding agent
 Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out
Surface Cleaning
 Removal of sand from casting surface and otherwise

enhancing appearance of surface
 Cleaning methods: tumbling, air‑blasting with coarse
sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing, buffing, and
chemical pickling
 Surface cleaning is most important for sand casting
 In many permanent mold processes, this step can
be avoided
 Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is

needed to detect their presence
Heat Treatment
 Castings are often heat treated to enhance

properties
 Reasons for heat treating a casting:
 For subsequent processing operations such as
machining
 To bring out the desired properties for the

application of the part in service
Casting Quality
 There are numerous opportunities for things to go

wrong in a casting operation, resulting in quality
defects in the product
 The defects can be classified as follows:
 General defects common to all casting processes
 Defects related to sand casting process
General Defects: Misrun
 A casting that has solidified before completely filling

mold cavity
 Causes include low fluidity of molten metal, low
pouring temperature, slow pouring rate, and/or thin
cross-section of mold cavity
General Defects: Cold Shut
 Two portions of metal flow together but there is a

lack of fusion due to premature freezing
 Its causes are similar to those of a misrun
General Defects: Cold Shot
 Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules

form and become entrapped in casting
 Avoided by proper pouring procedures and good
gating system designs
General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity
 Depression in surface or internal void caused by

solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of
molten metal available in last region to freeze –
referred to as a “pipe”
 It can be solved by proper riser design
General Defects: Others
 Microporosity – network of small voids distributed

throughout the casting caused be localized
solidification shrinkage
 Hot tearing (or hot cracking) – occurs when casting
is restricted from contraction by an unyielding mold
during the final stage of solidification or early stages
of cooling after solidification
 It can be reduced by removing the part from the
mold immediately after solidification
Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow
 Balloon‑shaped gas cavity caused by release of

mold gases during pouring
 It is usually caused by low permeability, poor
venting, and high moisture content of sand mold
Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes
 Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly

below surface of casting
 Caused by release of gases
Sand Casting Defects: Penetration
 When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may

penetrate into sand mold or core, causing casting
surface to consist of a mixture of sand grains and
metal
 Harder packing of sand mold helps to ease this
condition
Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift
 A step in cast product at parting line caused by

sidewise relative displacement of cope and drag
Sand Casting Defects: Others
 Sand wash – irregularity in surface of casting

 It results from erosion of sand mold during pouring
 Scabs – rough areas of surface of casting
 It is caused by portions of mold surface flaking off
during solidification and becoming imbedded in casting
surface
 Core shift – similar to mold shift but it is the core that
is displaced
 Mold crack – occurs when mold strength is
insufficient, and a crack develops, into which a liquid
metal can seep to form a “fin” on final casting
Foundry Inspection Methods
 Visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as

misruns, cold shuts, and severe surface flaws
 Dimensional measurements to insure that tolerances
have been met
 Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests
concerned with quality of cast metal
 Pressure testing – to locate leaks in casting
 Radiographic methods, magnetic particle tests, and

supersonic testing – to detect either surface or
internal defects in casting
 Mechanical testing – tensile strength and hardness
Metals for Casting
 Most commercial castings are made of alloys rather

than pure metals
 Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties
of product are better
 Casting alloys can be classified as:

 Ferrous
 Nonferrous
Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron
 Most important of all casting alloys

 Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that of
all other metals combined
 Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2) nodular iron, (3)
white cast iron, (4) malleable iron, and (5) alloy cast
irons
 Typical pouring temperatures  1400C, depending
on composition
Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel
 The mechanical properties of steel make it an
attractive engineering material
 The capability to create complex geometries makes
casting an attractive shaping process
 Difficulties when casting steel:
 Pouring temperature of steel is higher than for
most other casting metals  1650C
 At such temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so

molten metal must be isolated from air
 Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity
Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel
 Characteristics of steel castings:

 Higher tensile strength than for most other casting
metals (~410 MPa)
 Isotropic – strength is virtually the same in all
directions
 Ease of welding – to repair the casting
Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Aluminum
 Generally considered to be very castable

 Pouring temperatures low due to low melting
temperature of aluminum
 Tm = 660C
 Properties:
 Light weight
 Range of strength properties by heat treatment
 Easy to machine
Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Copper Alloys
 Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze

 Properties:
 Corrosion resistance
 Attractive appearance
 Good bearing qualities
 Limitation: high cost of copper

 Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller blades,
pump components, ornamental jewelry
Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Zinc Alloys
 Highly castable, commonly used in die casting
 Low melting point – melting point of zinc Tm = 419C
 Good fluidity for ease of casting

 Properties:
 Low creep strength, so castings cannot be
subjected to prolonged high stresses
Product Design Considerations
 Geometric simplicity:
 Although casting can be used to produce complex
part geometries, simplifying the part design
usually improves castability
 Avoiding unnecessary complexities:
 Simplifies mold‑making
 Reduces the need for cores
 Improves the strength of the casting
 Corners on the casting:

 Sharp corners and angles should be avoided,
since they are sources of stress concentrations
and may cause hot tearing and cracks
 Generous fillets should be designed on inside

corners and sharp edges should be blended
 Section thicknesses:
 Should be uniform – to avoid shrinkage cavity
 Hot spots created with thicker sections – greater
volume requires more time for solidification and
cooling
 Draft Guidelines:
 In expendable mold casting, draft facilitates
removal of pattern from mold
 Draft = 1 for sand casting
 In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid in

removal of the part from the mold
 Draft = 2 to 3 for permanent mold processes
 Similar tapers should be allowed if solid cores are

used
 Use of cores
 Minor changes in part design can reduce need

for coring
 Design change to eliminate the need for using a core: (a)

original design, and (b) redesign
 Dimensional Tolerances and Surface Finish:

 Significant differences in dimensional accuracies
and finishes can be achieved in castings,
depending on process:
 Poor dimensional accuracies and finish (~6

m) for sand casting
 Good dimensional accuracies and finish (~1

m) for die casting and investment casting
 Machining Allowances:
 Almost all sand castings must be machined to
achieve the required dimensions and part
features
 Additional material, called the machining

allowance, is left on the casting in those surfaces
where machining is necessary
 Typical machining allowances for sand castings

are around 1.5 and 3 mm

03 - Metal Casting PP

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

03 - Metal Casting PP

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MENG 210

 Processes in which starting work material is either a

 Ceramics, specifically glasses

 Polymers and polymer matrix composites (PMCs)

metals Other casting

Special processes for

Classification of solidification processes

 Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or

 Casting of ingot – associated with the primary metals

 Casting of Shaping – production of more complex

 Can create complex part geometries

 Limitations on mechanical properties

 Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for

 Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten

 All varieties of metals can be cast, ferrous and

 Casting is usually performed in a foundry

 Contains cavity whose geometry determines part

 Different metals undergo different amounts of

 Molds are made of a variety of materials,

Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container in the

1. Expendable mold processes – uses an expendable

2. Permanent mold processes – uses a permanent

 Expendable mold processes

 Permanent mold processes

Cross-sectional view of a typical sand-casting mold

 Mold consists of two halves:

 Drag – bottom half

 Mold halves are contained in a box, called a flask

 Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a

 The mold cavity provides the external surfaces of the

 Channel through which molten metal flows into cavity

 Heating furnaces are used to heat the metal to

2. heat of fusion to convert from solid to liquid

3. heat to raise molten metal to desired

 Heat energy required in casting process (H) can be

H = V[Cs(Tm-T0)+ Hf + Cl(Tp-Tm) (J)

 Assume, T0 = 25 ºC and density of metal at liquid and

 For this step to be successful, metal must flow into

 The temperature of the molten metal as it introduced

 Volumetric rate at which the molten metal is poured

 Flow is agitated and irregular rather than smooth and

 Fluidity describes the flow characteristics of the

 Transformation of molten metal back into solid state

A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature

Cooling curve for a pure metal during casting

large columnar grains

Characteristic grain structure in a casting of a pure metal, showing

Characteristic grain structure in an alloy casting, showing

 Solidification takes time

 Mold constant Cm depends on:

 Value of Cm for a given casting operation can be

 Since mold constants of riser and casting will be

Shrinkage of a cylindrical casting during solidification and cooling:

(2) reduction in height and formation of shrinkage cavity (pipe)

 Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase

 Patternmakers account for solidification shrinkage

 To minimize damaging effects of shrinkage (shrink

 The term directional solidification describes this

 Desired directional solidification is achieved using

 (a) External chill to encourage rapid freezing of the

 Riser is waste metal that is separated from the

 A cylindrical riser must be designed for a sand-

2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal