Review of Hypothesis

Research Methodology (RCH 601)

Nepal Engineering College

Center for Postgraduate Studies (nec-
CPS)

1
(Some parts of the lectures are adapted from the Dr. M.K. Dhamala, nec-CPS)
 What is a hypothesis?
• A hypothesis is a statement that can be proved
or disproved
• A research question can be made into a hypothesis
by changing it into a statement
• A hypothesis is usually written in the form of
an if/then statement
• This statement gives a possibility (if) and
explains what may happen because of the
possibility (then)
– For example, if Construction Safety Provisions (NBC 114)
reduces occupational health risks at the construction sites,
then projects adhering with NBC 114 will avoid accidents
at their project sites.
• The precursor to a hypothesis is a research
problem, usually framed as a question. It might
ask what, or why, something is happening
• research hypothesis is a predictive statement,
capable of being tested by scientific methods,
that relates an independent variable to some
dependent variable.
• a hypothesis states what we are looking for and
it is a proposition which can be put to a test to
determine its validity.
NATURE OF HYPOTHESIS
• should be specified before research is conducted and
openly stated in reporting the results.
• Is a prediction of consequences.
• Is conceptual in nature.
• Is a verbal statement in a declarative form.
• Has the empirical referent.
• Indicates the tentative relationship between two or more
variables.
• Can be tested, verifiable or falsifiable.
• Is not moral or ethical questions.
• Is neither too specific nor too general.
• Is considered valuable even if proven false.
NATURE OF HYPOTHESIS (TYPES)

 Descriptive and Relational Hypothesis

Descriptive Research (Attributive)

• Are in the form of propositions that only state the

existence, size, form, distribution of some sort of variable

• Contains only one variable, so relationship between

variables cant be explored
– a behavior exists
– can be measured, &
– can be distinguished from other similar behaviors
Attributive Research Hypothesis Examples.
• We can describe something
– H1: There is no living organism in the moon
– H2: Human brain exhibits electrical activity.
– H3: The current unemployment rate in Nepal exceeds 20% of
the work force
Corresponds with descriptive knowledge

• Ex: What is the extent of budget difficulties in TU?

: TU is experiencing budget difficulties (variable)
• Is not compulsory here
Relational Hypothesis (Associative)
Describes the relationship between two or more
variables with respect to some case.
• Knowing the amount or kind of one behavior
helps you to predict the amount or kind of the
other
– H1: Girls achieve better than boys in verbal ability
tests 
– H2: The drop out rate in rural schools in higher than
that in urban schools
– H3: Families with higher income spend more on
recreation 
Corresponds with predictive knowledge
TYPES: (i) Correlational
(ii)Explanatory (causal)
Relational Hypothesis (Associative)
Types:
1. Correlational: variables occur together in some
specified manner without stating that one
causes to other
Ex: Families with higher incomes spend more on recreation

2. Explanatory (Causal): implications of one

variable on the other are stated (How one variable
would cause to change in other variable)
 Causal Research Hypothesis
• States that differences in the amount or kind of
one behavior causes differences in amount or
kind of other
• implications of one variable on the other are stated
(How one variable would cause to change in other
variable)
• strongly imply or state the existence of or a change in
one variable causes or leads to an effect or another
variable.
– H1: Reducing class size increases student achievement.
– H2: silent reading increases reading scores.
– Labor productivity will increase if workers are paid for over
time work
 Directional and Non-directional Hypothesis
Directional
Indicates a particular direction of the expected
relationship between two variables (positive,
negative, more than, less than)
Ex: younger workers are less motivated than older worker

Non-directional
Don’t indicate any direction of relationship between
variables
Ex: difference between work attitude of industrial and
agricultural worker
 Examples of directional and non
directional hypotheses
• Non-directional
– A researcher has results for a sample of students who took a national
exam at a high school. The researcher wants to know if the scores at
that school differ from the national average of 850. A non-directional
alternative hypothesis is appropriate because the researcher is
interested in determining whether the scores are either less than or
greater than the national average. (H0: μ = 850 vs. H1: μ≠ 850)

• Directional
– A researcher has exam results for a sample of students who took a
training course for a national exam. The researcher wants to know if
trained students score above the national average of 850. A directional
alternative hypothesis can be used because the researcher is
specifically hypothesizing that scores for trained students are greater
than the national average. (H0: μ = 850 vs. H1: μ > 850)
 Null and Alternate hypothesis
Null (Ho)
• no significant difference between groups when
compared with respect to a particular variable.
• A hypothesis set up to be nullified in order to
support an alternate hypothesis

Alternate (HA)
• proposes a relationship between two or more
variables
• Hypothesis in contrary to null hypothesis
• Thus, a null hypothesis represents the
hypothesis we are trying to reject, and
alternative hypothesis represents all other
possibilities.
Example:

Suppose building specifications in a certain city require that the average breaking
strength of residential sewer pipe be more than 2,400 kg per meter of length.
Each manufacturer that wants to sell pipe in that city must demonstrate that its
product meets the specification. Note that we are interested in making an
inference about the mean μ of a population. However, in this example, we are
less interested in estimating the value of μ than we are in testing a hypothesis
about its value. That is, we want to decide whether the mean breaking strength
of the pipe exceeds 2,400 kg per meter.

Research Question: What is the status of manufacturer whose sewer pipes

meets the required specifications?

Null Hypothesis (Ho):

μ ≤ 2, 400 (i.e., the manufacturer’s pipe does not meet specifications).

Alternative Hypothesis (H1):

μ > 2, 400 (i.e., the manufacturer’s pipe meets specifications).
Hypothesis Testing
 Hypothesis testing
• Hypothesis testing is an important activity
of empirical research and evidence-
based research.
• A well worked up hypothesis is half the
answer to the research question.
• For this, both knowledge of the subject
derived from extensive review of the
literature and working knowledge of basic
statistical concepts are desirable.
 Steps in Hypothesis testing
1. Setting of hypothesis
– Null hypothesis
– Alternative hypothesis
2. Deciding proper test statistic
3. Level of significance/ Critical region
4. Selecting a random sample
5. Calculation and Comparing the probability
6. Decision
• A null hypothesis is formulated and then a
scientific investigation is conducted to try to
disprove the null hypothesis
– leaves only original hypothesis as the
only alternative
– proof requires every possible
observation to be available
• If it can be disproved, another null hypothesis is
constructed and the process is repeated
Problems in Formulating Hypothesis
• Lack of knowledge and clarity of the theoretical
framework of the area in which the investigator
chooses to work
• Lack of ability to make use of the theoretical
framework logically
• Lack of acquaintance with available research
techniques
– This result in failure of phrasing the hypothesis
properly
• Vagueness of the statement
• Inadequate knowledge regarding the research
problem
Origin of Hypothesis
.
The major sources of hypotheses are
• Specialization of an educational field.
• Published studies, abstracts research journals, hand books,
seminars on the issue, current trends on the research area.
• Instructional programs persuaded.
• Analysis of the area studied.
• Considering existing practices and needs.
• Extension of the investigation.
• Theory
• General social culture
• Analogy (comparison)
• Personal experience
 Formulating Hypothesis
• Hypothesis is formulated from the research question by
replacing the words "Is there" with the words "There is",
and also replacing the question mark with a period
There is a significant relationship between…….
There is a significant difference between……..
• It is not possible to test a hypothesis directly
• Instead, you must turn the hypothesis into a
null hypothesis
• The null hypothesis is created from the hypothesis by
adding the words "no" or "not" to the statement
• For example:
There is no significant relationship between…….
There is no significant difference between………
• All statistical testing is done on the
null hypothesis...never the hypothesis
• The result of a statistical test will
enable you to either
1. reject the null hypothesis, or
2. fail to reject the null hypothesis
• NEVER use the words "accept the
null hypothesis"
 Hypothesis Falsifiability
• A hypothesis is a suggested solution for an
unexplained occurrence that does not fit into
current accepted scientific theory
• The basic idea of a hypothesis is that there is
no pre-determined outcome
• For a hypothesis to be termed a scientific
hypothesis, it has to be something that can
be supported or denied through carefully
crafted experimentation or observation
• This is called falsifiability and testability
• Research hypothesis states your expectations
in a positive sense
• It must be falsifiable

Hypothesis: HimAqa mineral water is free of E. coli

Prediction: All bottles tested are all free
Example: Can be falsified by observing a bottle
with
E. coli.

Ex: Hypothesis: Both sides of coin are heads

Prediction: All flips of coin yield heads up
Example: Can be falsified by one tail up
 Hypothesis Falsifiability
• Beware of tautology (repetition)- it occurs when
instead of A causing B, A really is B
Hypothesis: She loves math and she will
pass the exam.
Prediction: Expect her to pass the math exam
Is a tautology because loving math implies that she
will pass this course. (even if she fails it doesn't
means she doesn't loves math)

H2: The dog is either brown, or the dog is not brown.

the statement is always true avoid it
 Hypothesis Falsifiability
Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence
If you look for "X" and don't find it, does that prove that
there is no "X"? No.

Hypothesis: Brand “A” exists in Nepal

Problem: It might be difficult or impossible sometimes to
falsify the hypothesis that Brand “A” doesn’t exist.

Reverse the statement

Hypothesis: Brand “A” is not available in Nepal
Solution: It will take only one verified observation to falsify
the hypothesis
Characteristics of usable hypotheses

• It should be in a declarative form

• It should represent the expected relation between
two variables
• It should be testable and falsifiable
• It should be clear, precise, easy to understand
• It should be related to the theory
• It should guide the research
• It should estimate the results
• It should be able to define the variables
Continued…

• Should be reasonable i.e. logically consistent

• Does not conflict with any law of nature which
is know to be true
• Hypothesis should be specific
 A specific hypothesis leaves no unclarity
about the subjects and variables, or about
how the test of statistical significance will be
applied
• Hypothesis should be stated in advance
Continued…

• Hypothesis should be simple

 A Simple hypothesis is that one in which there
exits relationship between two variables one is
called independent variable or cause and the
other is dependent variable or effect.
 Simple hypothesis contains one predictor and one
outcome variable,
– E.g. 1: Use of PPEs leads to work place safety;
– E.g. 2: thehigher ratio of unemployment
leads to crimes.
Here in the first example, the single predictor
variable is PPEs and the outcome variable is safety.
Continued…
• A complex hypothesis contains more than one
predictor variable or more than one outcome
variable, e.g., Complex hypothesis is that one in
which as relationship among variables exists.
• In this type dependent and independent variables
are more than two
– E.g. 1: Use of PPEs and First Aid Facility
at the
construction sites ensures occupational safety;
– E.g. 2: the higher ratio of unemployment, poverty and
illiteracy leads to crimes like dacoits, murder, etc.
• Here in the first examples there are 2 predictor
variables, i.e., PPEs and First Aid Facility, while one
outcome variable, i.e., occupational safety
– Complex hypothesis like this cannot be easily tested with
a single statistical test and should always be separated
into 2 or more simple hypotheses
Utilities of hypothesis/Importance of hypothesis:
• It helps to know real situation; shows the
relationships; helps to know trends; raises issues;
provides idea about tools
• It guides the research in a proper way
• It separates real and unreal facts
• It helps to design research and guides the
research for accurate results
• It helps to collect required data for research
• It helps to arrange the research report in a proper
way
• Is a powerful tool of advancement of knowledge,
consistent with existing knowledge and conducive
to further enquiry.
Role of Hypothesis in Research Process

One of the key concepts within the research process is the concept of
hypothesis. A working hypothesis is a suggested solution of explanation
of a research problem which may or may not be the real solution. The
task of research is to test and establish such hypothesis. To formulate
hypothesis also means to designate further steps of research process,
design of new theoretical models, new measurements or calculating
approaches, stimulations and practical experiments, etc. No research
would start without early hypothesis despite its main advantage is a
high level of generative and non-transparency. Existence of well
defined hypothesis is a key factor in the research process. A
hypothesis, which is properly formulated may lead to good reasonable,
utilized and proper conclusion. If the hypothesis is better than the
conclusion drawn by a researcher would be better for solution of a
problem.