The OSI Model

Overview

 When networks first came into being, computers could typically communicate
only with computers from the same manufacturer. For example, companies ran
either a complete DECnet solution or an IBM solution—not both together.
 In the late 1970s, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was
created by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to break
this barrier.
 The OSI model was meant to help vendors create interoperable network
devices and software in the form of protocols so that different vendor networks
could work with each other.
 The OSI model describes how data and network information are communicated
from an application on one computer, through the network media, to an application
on another computer.
 The OSI reference model breaks this approach into layers.
 Layers  Departments
 If programmers are developing a protocol for a certain layer, all they need to
concern themselves with is the specific layer’s functions, not those of any other
layer.
 Advantages of Reference Models

1. divides the network communication process into smaller and simpler

components, thus aiding component development, design, and troubleshooting.
2. allows multiple-vendor development through standardization of network
components.
3. allows various types of network hardware and software to communicate.
4. prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers, so it does not hamper
development.
The Seven Layers of the OSI Model
 The OSI has seven different layers, divided into two groups.
 The top three layers define how the applications within the end stations will

communicate with each other and with users.

 The bottom four layers define how data is transmitted end-to-end.

 The OSI reference model remains today the most popular means of comparison for
protocol suites.
Typical Layer functions
 Application Layer (Layer 7)

 where users actually communicate to the computer.

 Take the case of Internet Explorer (IE).

 is also responsible for identifying and establishing the availability of the intended
communication partner
 Typical protocols
 World Wide Web (WWW)

 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

 E-mail (SMTP)
 The Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

 presents data to the Application layer and is responsible for data translation and
code formatting.
 by providing translation services, the Presentation layer ensures that data
transferred from the Application layer of one system can be read by the
Application layer of another one.
 Tasks like data compression, decompression, encryption, and decryption are
associated with this layer.
 Presentation Layer Protocols

 TIFF Tagged Image File Format; a standard graphics format for high-resolution,
bitmapped images.
 JPEG Photo standards by the Joint Photographic Experts Group – compresses
images
 MIDI Musical Instrument Digital Interface - used for digitized music.
 MPEG Moving Picture Experts Group - standard for the compression and coding of
motion video for CDs.
 QuickTime - For use with Macintosh programs; manages audio and video
applications.
 RTF Rich Text Format, a file format that lets you exchange text files between
different word processors, even in different operating systems.
 The Session Layer (Layer 5)

 is responsible for setting up, managing, and then tearing down sessions between
Presentation layer entities.
 provides dialogue control between devices, or nodes.
 To sum up, the it basically keeps different applications’ data separate from other
applications’ data.
 Session layer protocols

 Network File System (NFS) - Developed by Sun Microsystems and used with TCP/IP
and Unix workstations to allow transparent access to remote resources.
 Structured Query Language (SQL) - Developed by IBM to provide users with a
simpler way to define their information requirements on both local and remote systems.
 Remote Procedure Call (RPC) - A broad client/server redirection tool used for
creating procedures on clients and performed on servers.
 AppleTalk Session Protocol (ASP) - Another client/server mechanism, which both
establishes and maintains sessions between AppleTalk client and server machines.
 The Transport Layer (Layer 4)

 segments and reassembles data into a data stream.

 provide end-to-end data transport services and establish a logical connection
between the sending host and destination host
 hides details of any network-dependent information from the higher layers by
providing transparent data transfer.
 The Transport layer can be connectionless or connection-oriented.
 Connection-Oriented Communication

 Three way handshake.

 Setup a call

 Transfer Data

 Terminate the call

Too much traffic for too small a capacity?
Solution -> flow control
 Wouldn’t it be slow
if the transmitting machine had to wait for an acknowledgment after sending each
segment?
Solution  Windowing
 Transport Layer Protocols

 TCP - a full-duplex, connection-oriented, reliable protocol

 Too much overhead

 UDP - doesn’t offer all the bells and whistles of TCP either, but it does do a
fabulous job of transporting information that doesn’t require reliable delivery—
and it does so using far fewer network resources.
 The Network Layer (Layer 3)

 manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network, and
determines the best way to move data
 transports traffic between devices that aren’t locally attached.
 Concerned about network addressing
 Network addresses allow a system to be identified on the network by a logically

assigned address.
 The logical assignment of addresses allows a more hierarchical approach to

addressing than MAC addresses provide.

 Routers are layer devices
 Switching Methods

 describes how the data sent from one node reaches another.
1. Circuit switching – just like is a telephone call.
 The link between caller and receiver is created, then a dedicated communications
link between the two points (hence the term circuit) is created. The circuit cannot
be broken, meaning no one else can use the line.
 In a data communications environment, however, this is a disadvantage because
the data often originates from various sources.
2. Packet switching – widely used in a modern network environment.
 data is broken down into packets that can then be transported around the network.
 all messages travel over the same path, or it might be that messages travel on
different paths.
 At each point in the journey, a node stores the message before it is forwarded to
the next hop on the journey - store and forward.
 Due to store and forward, there is some delay.
 Network Layer Protocols

 IPX - Part of Novell's IPX/SPX protocol suite, which provides a connectionless

transport mechanism.
 IP - IP performs much the same function as IPX, but IP is part of TCP IP protocol
suite.
 The Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

 provides the physical transmission of the data and handles error notification,
network topology, and flow control.
 will ensure that messages are delivered to the proper device on a LAN using
hardware addresses, and translates messages from the Network layer into bits for
the Physical layer to transmit.
 formats the message into pieces, each called a data frame, and adds a customized
header containing the hardware destination and source address.
 For a host to send packets to individual hosts on a local network as well as
transmitting packets between routers, the Data Link layer uses hardware
addressing.
 Switches and Bridges are layer 2 devices – they pass data using MAC address
 WAPs are also considered data-link layer devices because their primary function is
to provide connectivity to the network.
 has two distinct sublayers
1. Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer - controls the access of the media,
allowing multiple high-level protocols to use a single network link.
 tells the Data Link layer what to do with a packet once a frame is received
2. Media Access Control (MAC) - manages and controls access to the network
media for the protocols trying to use it.
 The MAC address (Physical address) is defined at this layer, as well as
logical topologies.
 Defines how packets are placed on the media.
 “first come/first served” access where everyone shares the same bandwidth
 Line discipline, error notification (not correction), ordered delivery of
frames are used at this layer
 The layer 2 device puts the source hardware address in a filter table and keeps
track of which port the frame was received on. This information (logged in the
bridge’s or switch’s filter table) is what helps the machine determine the location
of the specific sending device.
 The biggest benefit of using switches instead of hubs in a network is that each
switch port is actually its own collision domain.
 The Physical Layer (Layer 1)

 defines the physical characteristics of the network.

 physical characteristics can include the cable and connector type, the format

for pinouts for cables, and so on.

 also defines how the data actually travels across the network.
 defines the voltage used on the cable and the frequency at which the signals that
carry the data are transitioned from one state to another  (speed and maximum
distance)
 defines the physical topology of the network.
 Hubs and repeaters are layer 1 devices
 although NICs are physical components, they are defined as data-link layer
devices because they are used in physical media access (which is handled at the
MAC sublayer) and the logical access of the network media (which is handled at
the LLC sublayer).
 Encapsulation and decapsulation

 As data is passed up or down through the OSI model structure, headers are added
(going down) or removed (going up) at each layer a process called encapsulation
(addition) or decapsulation (removal).
Exercise – Identify the number of broadcast and collision domains in each case.