2.2.

1 General Ladder Deck Bridges

The arrangement with two main girders is appropriate for a bridge width up to that for a dual two-lane carriageway. The
economy comes principally from eliminating the cross head girder and directly supporting each stringer on its own set
of collumns, as shown in figure 2.6.

The main girders and cross girders are both provided with shear connectors, to enable composite action to be developed
with the slab. Cross girders are usually connected to the main girders by bolting ; intermediate transverse web stiffeners
are provided at each cross grider conection.

Most ladder deck bridges are designed with uniform depth main girders but variable depth girders can be used. An
example of a haunched girder ladder deck is shown in figure 2.7.
Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7
2.2.1 General Ladder Deck Bridges

Where the deck is wide (greater than 22 meters), for example when a dual three-lane carriageway is carried, two
adjacent ladder deck arrangements can be used. In such cases, the deck slab can be continuous across all four main
girders or separate slabs may be provided, one on each pair of girders. Where the slab in continuous, it spans
transversely between the innermost girders (which are thus limited to a maximum spacing of 3.5m between them).

Where the deck slab is continuous, depending on the arrangements of the lanes and barriers, high moments may be
generated in the deck. This may require the use of an intermediate cross girder to make the row of cross girders
continuous across the total width of the bridge.
2.2.2 Main Girders

The main longitudinal girders are generally fabricated plate girders; the heaviest hot rolled section (Universal Beams)
or welded beams are unlikely to be sufficient, even for modest spans. Because there are only two webs, the web plate
is thicker that it would be in a multiple girder arrangement; the web slenderness is lower and it is usually possible to
develop the necessary shear resistance in the webs without use of web stiffening, other than that at the cross girders.

With longer spans, the size of the flanges, particularly bottom flange, is likely to be quite large (in both width and
thickness). It is prudent for designers to check the availability of suitable plate material at an early stage, with
particular attention to the toughness grade and available dimensions, as discussed in section 4.5.1.
2.2.3 Cross Girders

Cross girders are typically spaced between 3.5m and 4m centres, to suit a slab thickness of about 250mm. For a simple two or
three-lane bridge, where the main girders are 7m-10m apart, hot rolled sections (Universal Beams) maybe sufficient for structural
purposes, but plate girder sections are more likely to be used. Where there is a camber to the road surface the top flange of a plate
girder can follow the cross fall, allowing the use of a uniform thickness of both slab and surfacing. The bottom flange would
normally be straight. If rolled section cross girders were used, either the sections would have to be cambered, or the slab or
surfacing would have to be tapered in thickness to provide falls (which complicates slabs contruction).

Where there is super-elevation of the road surface, one main girder is arranged higher than the other and the cross girder depth
usually constant.

Cross girders are usually unstiffened and unbraced, but long cross girders may require bracing for the construction condition
(typically, channel bracing between pairs of girders at their mid-span)
2.2.3.1 Intermediate Girders in sagging moment regions

Intermediate cross girders effectively act as simply supported beams in carrying the loading from the slab. The end
moments, due to interaction with the main girders, are very small in relation to the strength of the cross girders, which
can therefore be designed as simply supported beams. However, the end moments may be large enough to influence
the design of the cross girder to main girder connection.

In the composite condition, the cross girders in the sagging moment regions of the main girders are required to
provide lateral restraint to the main girder bottom flanges only where the main girders are curved in plan or where
lateral loads from vehicle impact on the soffit are to be resisted. The cross girders provide restraint through U-frame
action.
2.2.3.2 Intermediate Cross Girders in hogging moment regions

In the hogging moment regions of the main girders, adjacent to internal supports, the intermediate cross girders are
required to provide lateral restraint to the bottom flanges of the main girders, which are in compression. This restraint
is provided through the ‘inverted U-frames’ formed by the cross girders and to transmit restraint moments and the
frame needs to be stiff. If the cross girders are less than half the depth of the main girder, knee bracing or haunched
cross girders may be needed, both to stiffen the frame and to reduce moments that need to be transmitted through the
cross / main girder connections.
2.2.3.3 Cross Girders at internal supports

At the internal supports of continuous spans, the cross girders are very often deeper than the intermediate cross
girders, providing a stiffer and stronger ‘pier diaphragm’, with bolted connections that can transfer the large restraint
forces that occur at the supports (see figure 2.8). The cross girder should not be as deep as the main girders, to avoid
conflict with, and direct connection to the bottom flange of the main girder.
As an alternative to using a deeper cross girder, knee bracing or a haunced cross girder can be provided, as shown in
figures 2.9 and 2.10. This will stiffen the frame and reduce moments that need to be transmitted through the cross /
main girder connections and may be advantageous if services or access ways are connected to the soffits of the cross
girders along the length of the bridge. In practice, intermediate knee bracing is rarely specified ; it is more economical
to use a deeper cross girder. Haunched cross girders are an even more expensive detail and a fabricator should be
consulted before selecting this option.