TE Training Materials - Deliverables

End-to-End Traffic Engineering and
Management
1
Telecoms Fundamentals and Current Trends
2
About Me..
Solution Architect and Multi-Vendor Product
Technical Trainer 5GNR, NB-IoT, VoLTE, LTE, WCDMA,
NFV.
Trainer of 2 of the best selling 5G courses on Udemy.
3
Day-1
 1G, 2G, 2.5G, 3G,4G
 Rel 99 to R7
 Spectrum efficiency & capacities (peak throughput)
4
Evolution of Telecom Networks
5
Objectives
 This section will cover:
 Cellular generations 1G, 2G, 2.5G, 3G and 4G
 Evolution of UMTS in different 3GPP releases
 Peak throughput of Rel 99 to R7
 Introduction of R8 (LTE)
6
First Generation (1G)
• Analogue Modulation ,1976+, though really the

technology of the 1980’s
• Standards: NMT(Scandinavian Standard in 450MHz
and 900MHz bands), AMPS, TACS (UK), C-
450(German), JTACS (Japanese)
• Technology: FDMA Voice traffic only
• Basic voice services
• Circuit switched
Mobile • No Roaming
Communication
Evolution Second Generation (2G)
• Digital Modulation
• Standards: GSM,D-AMPS, PDC, IS-95
• Technology: FDMA/TDMA/CDMA
• Voice and some data, data rate transmission 9.6 kbps
to 14.4 kbps
• Circuit switched, encryption,
• Roaming possible
• Frequency Reuse,
7
• Two & half Generation (2.5G)
• Digital Modulation
• Standards – GPRS, EDGE, CDMA
1xEVDO/EVDV
• Technology – FDMA/TDMA/CDMA
• Voice and data, data rate transmission,
114kbps(GPRS), 384Kbps(EDGE),
Mobile Circuit/Packet switched
Communication • Third Generation (3G)

Evolution • Digital
• Standards – WCDMA
• Technology – CDMA,
• Voice, data and multimedia, higher data rate
transmissions up-to 2 Mbps
• Circuit/Packet switched , IP
• billing based on the utilization much smaller
call set up delay
8
First Generation – 1G
 1st commercial network

introduced by NTT in JAPAN
in 1979
 Analog Networks
4G
 Only Voice calls 3G
2.5G
 Large “Brick” Phones 2G
(approx. 1Kg) 1G
9
Second Generation – 2G
 1st network launched in

FINLAND in 1991
 Digital Networks
 Circuit Switched
 GSM, CDMA Standards 4G

3G
 Introduction of SMS, 2.5G
ringtones and basic internet 2G
access 1G
 Migration to 100-200gm
handheld devices
10
Second Generation – 2.5G
 Migration towards 3G
 Packet Switched
 GPRS, EDGE & CDMA2000

1x Standards
4G
 Introduction of WAP, MMS 3G
and internet services 2.5G
2G
 Speeds 1G
 GPRS (56-115Kbps)
 EDGE (230-384Kbps)
 CDMA1x (upto 307Kbps)
11
Third Generation – 3G
4G
3G
2.5G
2G
1G
12
3GPP Releases & Features
13
Fourth Generation – 4G
 Mobile WiMax and LTE

Standards
 1st mobile WiMax and LTE

networks launched in 2008
and 2010 respectively
4G
 Packet Switched for Voice 3G
and Data 2.5G
2G
 Speeds - upto 400Mbps 1G
 High bandwidth video
streaming
14
INDIA got it’s 1st 4G LTE network in April 2012 by Airtel in Kolkata
 What defines 1G and 2G technologies
 What are the additional features of:

 HSCSD
 GPRS
 EDGE
 R5 HSDPA
 R7 HSPA+
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16
Network Architecture and Interfaces
17
Course Progress
 Evolution of Telecom Networks
 1G, 2G, 2.5G, 3G,4G
 Rel 99 to R7
 Spectrum efficiency & capacities (peak throughput)
 Network Architecture and Interfaces
 GSM, GPRS, EDGE, WCDMA, LTE & WiFi
 Typical BTS site configuration (Active & Passive)
 Radio Frequency Principles
 Radio wave propagation and models
 Multi-path, fading, interference
 Cellular Concepts
 Spectrum Ecosystem ( Different bands and uses)
18
Objectives
 This section will cover:
 GSM network architecture
 Combined GSM/GPRS/EDGE and UMTS architecture
 Evolution of UMTS network architecture
 LTE network architecture
 LTE compared with UMTS network architecture
 Wi-Fi network architecture
19
GSM Architecture Overview
Air Interface Abis Interface A Interface

(Um)
VLR D HLR
MS
B C H
BSS
TRX
MS AuC
MSC
BTS BSC
F
MS
EIR
PSTN
NSS
20
The Mobile Station (MS)
 The mobile station consists of:
– mobile equipment (ME)
– subscriber identity module (SIM)
 The SIM stores permanent and temporary data about

the mobile, the subscriber and the network, including:
– The International Mobile Subscribers Identity (IMSI)
– MS ISDN number of subscriber
– Authentication key (Ki) and algorithms for authentication check
 The mobile equipment has a unique International Mobile

Equipment Identity (IMEI), which is used by the EIR
21
Mobile Station Power Classes
Full Rate
MS Class
Power mW dBm
GSM class 2 960 39 (8W)
GSM class 3 600 37 (5W)
GSM class 4 240 33 (2W)
GSM class 5 96 29 (0.8W)
DCS class 1 120 30 (1W)
DCS class 2 30 24 (.25W)
DCS class 3 480 36 (4W)
GSM class 1 – deleted under GSM Phase 2 Specification

Power (mW) = Nominal maximum mean power output (milliwatts)
Power (dBm) = Maximum power output in dBm (+watts)
Source: ETSI GSM 02.06 (Version 4.5.2)
22
The Base Station Sub-System (BSS)
 The BSS comprises:
– Base Station Controller (BSC)
– One or more Base Transceiver Stations (BTSs)
BSS
 The purpose of the BTS is to:
– provide radio access to the mobile stations
– manage the radio access aspects of the system
 BTS contains: BTS
– Radio Transmitter/Receiver (TRX)

– Signal processing and control equipment
– Antennas and feeder cables BSC
BTS
 The BSC:
– allocates a channel for the duration of a call
BTS
– maintains the call:
• monitors quality BTS
• controls the power transmitted by the BTS or MS
• generates a handover to another cell when required
 Sitting of the BTS is crucial to the provision of acceptable radio coverage
23
Network Switching System (NSS)
 The Network and Switching Sub-System (NSS)
sits between the BSS and other
telecommunications networks (e.g. PSTN). PSTN/ISDN
VLR
 The functions of the NSS are:
– to manage communications between subscribers MSC
GMSC
connected to different BSCs
– to locate and track mobiles in the GSM network for call-
SS7
routing purposes
Network
– to provide connectivity to other networks, in particular the
PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) AuC
 Key elements of the NSS: EIR
HLR
– Mobile Switching Centre (MSC) with:
• Visitor Location Register (VLR)
• Home Location Register (HLR) with:
• Authentication Centre (AuC)
– Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

– Gateway MSC (GMSC)
24
MSC and VLR
 Functions of the MSC:

– Switching calls, controlling calls and logging calls
– Interface with PSTN, ISDN
– Mobility management over the radio network and other networks VLR
– Radio Resource management - handovers between BSCs
– Billing Information
MSC
 Each MSC has a VLR
 VLR stores data temporarily for mobiles served by the MSC
 Information stored includes:
– IMSI
– MSISDN
– MSRN
– TMSI
– LAI
– Supplementary service parameters
25
Home Location Register (HLR)
 Stores details of all subscribers in the network , such as:
– Subscription information
– Location information: mobile station roaming number, VLR, MSC
– International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
– MS ISDN number
– Tele-service and bearer service subscription information
– Service restrictions
– Supplementary services
AuC
 Together with the AuC, the HLR checks the validity and service
profile of subscribers
HLR
 HLR Implementation
– One HLR in a network
– May be split regionally
– Stores details of several thousand subscribers
– Stand alone computer
– May be located anywhere on the SS7 network
– Combined with AuC
26
Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC)
 A Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC) is a device which routes
traffic entering a mobile network to the correct destination
 The GMSC accesses the network’s HLR to find the location of the
required mobile subscriber
 A particular MSC can be assigned to act as a GMSC
 The operator may decide to assign more than one GMSC
GMSC
27
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
 EIR is a database that stores a unique International Mobile
Equipment Identity (IMEI) number for each item of mobile
EIR
equipment
 The EIR controls access to the network by returning the
status of a mobile in response to an IMEI query
 Possible status levels are:
– White-listed The terminal is allowed to connect to the network.
– Grey-listed The terminal is under observation by the network

for possible problems.
– Black-listed The terminal has either been reported stolen, or is not a
type approved for a GSM network.
The terminal is not allowed to connect to the network.
28
Combined GSM/GPRS/Edge and UMTS Architecture
Base Station
Network Subsystem
Mobile Station Subsystem Other Networks
MSC/ GMSC
BSC VLR PSTN
BTS
ME
SIM
EIR HLR AUC PLMN
RNS
GGSN
SGSN
Node RNC Internet
ME B
USIM
UTRAN
+
SD
Note: Interfaces have been omitted for clarity purposes.

29
Major Network Elements in UMTS
Node B Iu-cs
Radio Network Mobile
Gateway
Controller Switching PLMN,
UMTS SIM MSC
Centre
RNC MSC/VLR GMSC PSTN,
USIM Node B
IUb ISDN
CU
IUr Home Location
Register
Mobile HLR
Equipment
ME IUb Internet,
Node B X25
Radio Network
Serving GSN
Gateway Packet
Controller GSN
Network
RNC Iu-ps SGSN GGSN
Node B
UE UTRAN CN
UU IU
30
General UTRAN Architecture
Node B Iu-cs
Radio Network
Controller CN (MSC)
RNC
Node B
IUb
IUr
UE
IUb
Node B
Radio Network
Controller
CN (SGSN)
RNC
Node B Iu-ps
UTRAN
UU IU
31
UTRAN
 UTRAN is the UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network
 The functions of UTRAN are:

– Provision of Radio Coverage
– System access control
– Security and privacy
– Handover
– Radio resource management and control
32
Elements of UTRAN
 Radio Network Controller
– Owns and controls radio resources in its domain (BSC in GSM)
– Service Access point for all services that UTRAN provides for the CN
– Note: Service RNC (SRNC) and Drift RNC (DRNC) are subsets in case of soft
handovers
 Node B
– Acts as the radio base station (BTS in GSM)
– Converts the data flow between the Iub and Uu interfaces
33
Radio Network Subsystem (RNS)
 A Radio Network Subsystem consists of:
Iu
– A single RNC
– One or more Node B’s Iur
– Cells belonging to Node B’s RNC
Node B Node B
Cell Cell
Cell Cell Cell Cell
Uu
34
Radio Network Controller (RNC)
 Responsible for the use and
integrity of the radio resources Iu
within the RNS Iur
RNC
 Responsible for the handover Node Node

decisions that require signalling to B B
Cel Cel
the UE l l
Cel Cel Cel Cel
l l l l
 Provides a combining/splitting Uu
function to support macro-diversity
between different Node Bs
35
Node B
 Logical node responsible for radio
transmission / reception in one or Iu
more cells to/from the UE Iur
RNC
 Dual mode Node B can support FDD
and TDD mode Node Node
 Not necessarily a single site B B
Cel Cel
according to the standards l l
Cel Cel Cel Cel
– Most current implementations use a l l l l
single site Uu
36
Cell
 A cell is an area of radio coverage serviced by one or more carriers
Iu
Iur
RNC
Node Node
B B
Cel Cel
Cel l Cel Cel l Cel
l l l l
Uu
37
General Core Network Architecture
Other MSC
F
F
Iu-cs Mobile External Circuit
Gateway
Switching
UTRAN Centre
MSC Switched
MSC/VLR GMSC Networks
D
D
Gs Home Location
Register
HLR
Gr Gc
Gi
Iu-ps Serving GSN
Gateway External Packet
GSN
UTRAN Switched
SGSN G GGSN
n Networks
Gn CN
IU Other SGSN
38
Functions of the Core Network
 Switching
 Service Provision
 Transmission of user traffic between UTRAN(s) and/or fixed network
 Mobility Management
 Operations, Administration and Maintenance
39
Evolution of Network Architecture
Direct tunnel LTE
HSPA R6 HSPA R7 HSPA R7 LTE R8
GGSN GGSN GGSN SAE GW
SGSN SGSN SGSN MME/SGSN
RNC RNC
Node B Evolved
Node B
(NB) Node B + RNC Node B
(NB)
Functionality (eNB)
40
LTE/SAE Network Elements
Evolved UTRAN (E-UTRAN) Evolved Packet Core (EPC)

HSS
MME: Mobility Management Entity
S6a
PCRF:Policy & Charging Rule Function
MME S10 S7
X2
Evolved Rx+
Node B S1-MME PCRF
LTE-UE (eNB)
S11
S1-U S5/S8 SGi
cell PDN
LTE-Uu Serving PDN
Gateway Gateway
SAE
Gateway
41
Evolved Node B (eNB)
– RNC is not a part of E-UTRAN
• Completely removed from the architecture
• eNB is the only one entity in E-UTRAN
– eNB main functions:
RNC
• Serving cell (or several cells)
• Provisioning of radio interface to UEs (eUu)
eNB
• Physical layer (PHY) and Radio Resource Management (RRM)
• Exchange of crucial cell-specific data to other base stations (eNBs) X2
RRM (bearer control, mobility control, scheduling, etc.)
Collection and evaluation of the measurements

User Plane data forwarding to SAE-GW eNB
MME selection when no info provided from UE
ROHC (Robust Header Compression)
Ciphering and integrity protection for the air interface
Transmission of messages coming from MME
(i.e. broadcast, paging, NAS)
42
Mobility Management Entity (MME)
Evolved HSS
S1-MME MME MME Functions
Node B
S6a
(eNB) Control plane NE in EPC
S11
S1-U Non-Access-Stratum (NAS)
Serving Security (Authentication,
Gateway integrity Protection)
• It is a pure signaling entity inside the EPC. Idle State Mobility Handling
• SAE uses tracking areas to track the position of idle UEs. The basic Tracking Area updates
principle is identical to location or routing areas from 2G/3G.
Subscriber attach/detach
• MME handles attaches and detaches to the SAE system, as well as
tracking area updates Signalling coordination for
SAE Bearer Setup/Release
• Therefore it possesses an interface towards the HSS (home
subscriber server) which stores the subscription relevant Radio Security Control
information and the currently assigned MME in its permanent data
Trigger and distribution of
base.
Paging Messages to eNB
• A second functionality of the MME is the signaling coordination to
Roaming Control (S6a interface
setup transport bearers (SAE bearers) through the EPC for a UE. to HSS)
• MMEs can be interconnected via the S10 interface Inter-CN Node Signaling
(S10 interface), allows efficient
inter-MME tracking area updates
and attaches
43
Serving SAE Gateway
Evolved
S1-MME MME
Node B
S6a
(eNB)
S11
S1-U S5/S8
Serving SAE PDN Serving Gateway Functions

Gateway Gateway
Local mobility anchor point:
Switching the user plane path to a
• The serving gateway is a network element that manages the user new eNB in case of Handover
data path (SAE bearers) within EPC.
• It therefore connects via the S1-U interface towards eNB and Mobility anchoring for inter-3GPP
mobility. This is sometimes referred
receives uplink packet data from here and transmits downlink to as the 3GPP Anchor function
packet data on it.
• When UE moves across eNB, the serving gateway acts as packet Idle Mode Packet Buffering and
notification to MME
data anchoring function within EPC.
• It relays the packet data within EPC via the S5/S8 interface to or Packet Routing/Forwarding
from the PDN gateway. between eNB, PDN GW and SGSN
• A serving gateway is controlled by one or more MMEs via S11 Lawful Interception support
interface.
44
Packet Data Network (PDN) SAE Gateway
S7 Rx+
MME PCRF
S6a
S11 PDN Gateway Functions
S5/S8 SGi
PDN Mobility anchor for mobility between
3GPP access systems and non-3GPP
Serving PDN SAE
access systems. This is sometimes
Gateway Gateway referred to as the SAE Anchor function
Policy Enforcement (PCEF)
Per User based Packet Filtering (i.e.

• The PDN gateway provides the connection between EPC and a deep packet inspection)
number of external data networks.
• Thus it is comparable to GGSN in 2G/3G networks. Charging & Lawful Interception support
• A major functionality provided by a PDN gateway is the QoS

IP Address Allocation for UE
coordination between the external PDN and EPC.
• Therefore the PDN gateway can be connected via S7 to a PCRF Packet Routing/Forwarding between
(Policy and Charging Rule Function). Serving GW and external Data Network
Packet screening (firewall functionality)
45
Policy and Charging Rule Function (PCRF)
S7 Rx+
MME PCRF
S6a
S11
S5/S8 SGi
PDN
Serving PDN SAE

Gateway Gateway
• The PCRF major functionality is the Quality of Service (QoS) PCRF: Policy & Charging Rule Function
coordination between the external PDN and EPC.
• Therefore the PCRF is connected via Rx+ interface to the QoS policy negotiation with PDN
external Data network (PDN)
• This function can be used to check and modify the QoS Charging Policy: determines how
associated with a SAE bearer setup from SAE or to request the packets should be accounted
setup of a SAE bearer from the PDN.
• This QoS management resembles the policy and charging
control framework introduced for IMS with UMTS release 6.
46
Home Subscriber Server (HSS)
HSS
MME
S6a
• The HSS is already introduced by UMTS release 5. HSS Functions

• With LTE/SAE the HSS will get additionally data per Permanent and central subscriber
subscriber for SAE mobility and service handling. database
• Some changes in the database as well as in the HSS
Stores mobility and service data for
protocol (DIAMETER) will be necessary to enable HSS for
every subscriber
LTE/SAE.
• The HSS can be accessed by the MME via S6a interface. Contains the Authentication Center
(AuC) functionality.
47
LTE Radio Interface and the X2 Interface
LTE-Uu
(E)-RRC ..
User
UserPDUs
PDUs User
UserPDUs
PDUs • Air interface of EUTRAN
PDCP (ROHC = RFC 3095) • Based on OFDMA in downlink and SC-FDMA in uplink
RLC TS 36.300 • FDD and TDD duplex methods
MAC
• Scalable bandwidth 1.4MHz to currently 20 MHz
eNB • Data rates up to 100 Mbps in DL
LTE-L1 (FDD/TDD-OFDMA/SC-FDMA)
• MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) is a major
component although optional.
LTE-Uu
X2-CP X2-UP
(Control Plane) (User Plane) X2
User
User PDUs
PDUs
• Inter eNB interface
• Handover coordination without involving the EPC
TS 36.423 X2-AP GTP-U
X2 • X2AP: special signaling protocol
SCTP UDP
TS 36.422
TS 36.424 • During HO, Source eNB can use the X2 interface to
IP IP forward downlink packets still buffered or arriving from
the serving gateway to the target eNB.
TS 36.421 L1/L2 L1/L2 TS 36.421
• This will avoid loss of a huge amount of packets during
inter-eNB handover.
TS 36.420
[currently also in TS 36.300 §20]
eNB
48
LTE vs UMTS
 Functional changes compared to the UMTS architecture
49
Wi-Fi Network Architecture
 Functional changes compared to the current UMTS architecture
50
 This section will cover:
 GSM network architecture
 Combined GSM/GPRS/EDGE and UMTS architecture
 Evolution of UMTS network architecture
 LTE network architecture
 LTE compared with UMTS network architecture
 Wi-Fi network Architecture
51
Introduction to 5G
52
Summary of Key 5G Requirements in 3GPP 38.913
5G target in 3GPP LTE in practise

Data rates DL 20 Gbps, UL 10 Gbps DL 1 Gbps, UL 0.5 Gbps
Peak spectral efficiency DL 30 bps/Hz, UL 15 bps DL 30 bps/Hz, UL 15 bps
Latency User 1 ms, control 10 ms User 10 ms, control 50 ms
Reliability 10-5 = 99.999% Not defined
Network virtualization New open interfaces Not flexible
Connection density 1M/km2 Not defined
Mobility 500 km/h 350 km/h
Coverage 164 dB 164 dB (NB-IoT)
53
IMT-2020 Use Cases
54
5G-NR
(Air Interface)
55
Key Technology Components of 5G Air
Interface
#1 New spectrum #2 massive MIMO & Beamforming #4 Multi-connectivity and
options aggregation
Spectrum
90 GHz 5G
3 mm LTE
5G
30 GHz LTE
1 cm 5G
10 GHz
#3 Flexible Air Interface Design #5 Distributed flexible architecture
3 GHz time
Dt
10 cm User #3
Df
• Lean design
• Flexible size,
frequency
User #4 User #5
User #2
300 MHz User #2

control, TDD,
User #1
User #1
User #3 User #5
1m
One tile corresponds to the smallest user allocation
bandwidth etc Gateway
56
Comparison 5G vs LTE
LTE 5G Benefit
Common Reference Signals - Better dMIMO / CoMP

Flexible reference signals - Lower consumption
(CRS)
Optimized CSI feedback with - Better MIMO / CoMP

Codebook based feedback - Low overhead
minimum overhead
Slow X2 inter-cell Fast over-the-air inter-cell - Faster coordination

coordination coordination
Link level performance is limited by Shannon. Multi-antenna and multi-cell

performance can be improved by clever system design
57
5G Performance Aspects
mmWave and cmWave propagation characteristics
Higher bands bring propagation challenges in 5G

Consistency across frequency
Higher losses Diffraction and diffuse scattering
and space
• Atmospheric lossess (Free space loss) • Diffraction and reflection loss increases with • Huge differences in
• Additional losses to be considered (rain, frequency propagation and fading
vegetation) • Diffuse scattering will be more pronounced at characteristics owing to
• Penetration loss (material dependent) tends higher frequencies width of any single carrier
to increase with frequency (100 MHz)
• Body/head blockage • MU-MIMO/massive MIMO
needs to capture spatial
correlation of channel
• Larger antenna arrays Massive MIMO New channel models are developed for 5G needs:
• RF based beamforming • 3GPP Urban Micro (UMi), Urban Macro (Uma),
• Directional antennas on UE side Indoor Hotspot (InH)
• Dedicated indoor installations • ITU-R M.2135
58
Agenda
• Important Features to compliment 5G
• NFV and SDN
• Mobile Edge Computing
• Network Slicing
• Massive MIMO Concept
• Multiple access in MIMO
• Cloud/Open RAN
• Vendor comparison and current deployment/Trail Status of the above
features
59
Network Function Virtualization
(NFV) and
Software Defined Networking
(SDN)
60
Network Functions Virtualization – Definition
 Network Functions Virtualisation aims to transform the way that network operators architect
networks by evolving standard IT virtualisation technology to consolidate many network
equipment types onto industry standard high volume servers, switches and storage, which
could be located in Datacentres, Network Nodes and in the end user premises.
– It involves the implementation of network functions in software that can run on a range of industry standard
server hardware, and that can be moved to, or instantiated in, various locations in the network as required,
without the need for installation of new equipment.
61
Mobile Edge Computing
(MEC)
62
Mobile Edge Computing and reference 5g
scenario
63
What is mobile edge computing
• Mobile-edge Computing (MEC) offers application developers and content providers

cloud-computing capabilities and an IT service environment at the edge of the mobile
network.
• This environment is characterized by ultra-low latency and high bandwidth as well as

real time access to radio network information that can be leveraged by applications.
• MEC provides a new ecosystem an value chain.
• Operators can open their Radio Access Network (RAN) edge to authorized third-
parties, allowing them to flexibly and rapidly deploy innovative applications and
services towards mobile subscribers, enterprises and vertical segments
64
MEC Use Cases
• Consumer-oriented services: these are innovative services that

generally benefit directly the end-user, i.e. the user using the UE.
• This can include:
• gaming;
• remote desktop applications;
• augmented and assisted reality;
• cognitive assistance;
• etc.
65
MEC Use Cases
• Operator and third party services: these are innovative services that
take advantage of computing and storage facilities close to the edge
of the operator's network.
• These services are usually not directly benefiting the end-user, but
can be operated in conjunction with third-party service companies:
• active device location tracking;
• big data;
• security, safety;
• enterprise services;
• etc.
66
MEC Use Cases
• Network performance and QoE improvements: these services are

generally aimed at improving performance of the network, either via
application-specific or generic improvements.
• The user experience is generally improved, but these are not new
services provided to the end-user:
• content/DNS caching;
• performance optimization;
• video optimization;
• etc.
67
MEC Platform API
68
Introduction to Cloud RAN
69
Cloud RANArchitecture
• A virtual BBU pool connected to various RRHs.
• BBU pool consists of general purpose processors to perform Baseband processing .
• C-RAN mobile LTE network.
70
Cloud RANArchitecture
• The front haul part spans from the RRHs sites to the BBU pool.
• The backhaul connects to the BBU pool with the mobile core network .
• RRHs are co-located with antennas, connected to the high performance processors in the BBU pool.
71
Network Slicing
72
Network SlicingAn Introduction
• Network slicing is a key feature for the next generation network.
• It is about transforming the network/system from a static "one size fits all" paradigm, to a new
paradigm where logical networks/partitions are created, with appropriate isolation, resources
and optimized topology to serve a particular purpose or service category (e.g. use case/traffic
category, or for internal reasons) or even individual customers (logical system created "on
demand").
• It can be enriched by use of NFV and SDN.
• The network slicing concept consists of 3 layers:
• Service Instance Layer,
• Network Slice Instance Layer, and
• Resource layer where each layer requires management functions
73
Management of 5G networks and network slicing
• 5G system is expected to be able to provide optimized support for a variety of different
communication services, different traffic loads, and different end user communities.
• The communication services using network slicing may include:
• 5G seamless eMBB service with FMC
• As one of the key technologies to enable network slicing, fixed mobile convergence
(FMC) which includes wireless-to-the-everything (WTTx) and fibre-to-the-everything
(FTTx), is expected to provide native support for network slicing.
• For optimization and resource efficiency, the 5G system will select the most appropriate
3GPP or non-3GPP access technology for a communication service, potentially allowing
multiple access technologies to be used simultaneously for one or more services active
on a UE.
74
Management of 5G networks and network slicing
• Massive IOT Connections
• As one of the key technologies to enable network slicing, fixed mobile convergence (FMC)
which includes wireless-to-the-everything (WTTx) and fibre-to-the-everything (FTTx), is
expected to provide native support for network slicing.
• For optimization and resource efficiency, the 5G system will select the most appropriate
3GPP or non-3GPP access technology for a communication service, potentially allowing
multiple access technologies to be used simultaneously for one or more services active on a
UE
• V2X services
• The 5G system aims to enhance its capability to meet KPIs that emerging V2X applications
require.
• For these advanced applications, the requirements, such as data rate, reliability, latency,
communication range and speed, are made more stringent
75
Types of Communication Services
• Communication services offered by Communication Service Providers (CSPs) to Communication
Service Customers (CSCs) are of various categories, among which:
• Business to consumer (B2C) services, e.g. mobile web browsing, 5G voice, Rich
Communication Services, etc.
• Business to business (B2B) services, e.g. Internet access, LAN interconnection, etc.
• Business to household (B2H) services, e.g. Internet access, MBMS, VOIP, VPN, etc.
• Business to business to everything (B2B2X) services: e.g. services offered to other CSPs (e.g.
international roaming, RAN sharing, etc.) offering themselves communication services to
their own customers.
• B2B2X service type includes B2B2 applied recursively, i.e. B2B2B, B2B2B2B, etc.
76
End to End Traffic
Engineering
Concept of Traffic
Telecommunication Traffic
Traffic Intensity
Traffic Intensity
Traffic Intensity
Traffic Intensity
Traffic Intensity – Def 1
Kinds of Traffic
Kinds of Traffic
Quality of service
4G - LTE
4G Quality of Services
 The VoIP service has specific bearer combination requirements.

– QCI1 dedicated bearer for the speech.
– QCI5 dedicated bearer for SIP signaling to the IMS.
– Default non-GBR bearer (QCI6-9) for data transfer (always-on).
 VoLTE Bearer Combination

EPS bearers for conversational voice
 Admission Control
– Under high GBR load conditions, new GBR bearer can be admitted if following conditions are
fulfilled:
• new bearer has higher ARP priority than some of the already admitted bearers
• new bearer has preemption capability set to ‘yes’
• some of the ongoing GBR bearers has preemption vulnerability
– When all GBR QCIs are used, bearers with QCI2,3 or 4 can be preempted to provide resources for
VoIP call
• Impact on Radio resource
Management
Congestion Control
 Congested state  When a cell is congested, the eNodeB

– A cell is regarded as congested in the downlink if
releases the GBR service that meets the
the downlink QoS satisfaction rate of services with
one or more QCIs is less than the relevant
following conditions and ranks the highest
congestion threshold and the downlink system priority:
resource usage is high. – The number of RBs used by this service is not 0.
– The value of the ARP IE "Pre-emption Vulnerability"
 Normal state
of the service is "pre-emptable".
– The cell is regarded as normal if the QoS
satisfaction rates of services with QCIs 1 are all
greater than the corresponding Qci1 Congestion
Thereshold.
Quality of service
5G NR
5G QoS
characteristics
• 1 Resource Type (GBR,
Delay critical GBR or Non-
GBR);
• 2 Priority Level;
• 3 Packet Delay Budget;
• 4 Packet Error Rate;
• 5 Averaging window
(for GBR and Delay-critical
GBR resource type only);
• 6 Maximum Data Burst
Volume (for Delay-critical
GBR resource type only).
Traffic classification and marking
Type Diffserv DSCP bin
Synchronization Proprietary 54 110110
Radio Network Control LU 51 110011
Transport Network Control CS6 48 110000
Signaling CS5 40 101000
O&M High Priority (SNMP Traps) CS4 32 100000
Voice (Expedited Forwarding) EF 46 101110
AF41 34 100010
Video/Gaming AF42 36 100100
AF43 38 100110
Non-GBR Data Priority AF31 26 011010

AF32 28 011100
O&M Undifferentiated CS2 16 010000
O&M low Priority (FTP/SFTP) CS1 8 001000
AF21 18 010010
Non-GBR Data (HSPA on lub/lur only) AF22 20 010100
AF23 22 010110
AF11 10 001010
Non-GBR Data (all PS traffic except HSPA on lub/lur) AF12 12 001100
AF13 14 001110
Best Effort BE 0, all other

End to end QoS
Mobile Traffic QoS
Strict priority scheduling with bandwidth limit (Inelastic Traffic) Reserved bandwidth per queue (Elastic traffic)
6
Class of 4 3

Service Application / Service Examples PHB DSCP P-bit queues
queues queues
(Rec)
Radio Synchronization Network Frequency or phase synch (GSM, WCDMA, LTE, CES termination devices, etc LU 54
Network 1 7 Q1 Q1
Control Radio Network control WCDMA (FACH1, 2, RACH, PCH, MBMS, FACH), GSM 8OML, RSL, STN_L2TP_CP), etc LU 51
Transport network control IP Routing (BGP, OSPF, IS-IS), NTP ToD, L2 resilience, ICMP, etc.. CS6 48
Signaling 2 Signaling Radio netwotk control (SRB/RRC, NBAP, RNSAP, RANAP, S1AP/X2AP, CDMA Abis signaling & RAN Datagram, A11, A12, A13, CS5 40 6 Q2
HRPD Signaling, DOS Messaging, etc
O&M high priority O&M configuration management CS4 32
Voice Voice (QCI1=PS conversational/speech, CS conversational/speech on A, Abis, Iu, Iub, Iur, CDMA/1xRTT Voice+Data, Voice abd EF 46
Data Signaling, CDMA/EVDO Delay Sensitive-1)
Real Time Gaming (QCI3= PS conversational/unknown, CDMA/EVDO Delay Sensitive-2: Second priority delay sensitive user AF41 34
traffic channels)
Q1
Live Streaming (QCI2= PS conversational/unknown), GBR Traffic (CDMA/EVDO Delay Sensitive-3: Third Priority delay sensitive
user traffic over forward traffic channels, CDMA/EVDO User Rate Sensitive-1: Rate sensitive user traffic over forward traffic AF42 36 Q2
channels)
Expedited
Forwarding 3 5 Q3
Video / Gaming / GBR
AF43 38
Video Streaming (QCI4= PS conversational/unknown), GBR Traffic (CDMA/EVDO Delay Sensitive-3: Low Priority delay sensitive
user traffic over forward traffic channels, CDMA/EVDO User Rate Sensitive-2: Low Priority delay sensitive user traffic over
forward traffic channels), CDMA/EVDO RTC High Capacity: Rate sensitive and best effort user traffic over reverse link traffic
channels. (Separation of the best effort and GBR uplink traffic is not possible)
PS traffic for priority users only (QCI6= Interactive/THP1) AF31 26
Non-GBR Data priority Undifferentiated PS traffic (Interactive/THP2+THP3 and Background ("THP4") in WCDMA/DCH on Iub/Iur, all PS traffic in GSM AF32 28
on Abis and Gb)
Assured
Forwarding 3 4 O&M Undifferentiated O&M high and low priority if separation is not possible (include all WCDMA O&M traffic CS2 16 4 Q4
O&M low priority (SIU) O&M Bulk, CUDB replication, charging low priority (FTP), CDMA/EVDO Low Priority OAM: Secure remote login (SSH), CS1 8
secure software download and log upload (SFTP), and data collection upload Q3 Q2
PS traffic (Interactive/THP2 in WCDMA/HSPA on Iub/Iur) or CDMA/EVDO user Best Effort-1: Inter-User Best Effort 1 user traffic AF21 18
over forward traffic channels
Assured Non-GBR Data (HSPA on PS traffic (Interactive/THP3 in WCDMA/HSPA on Iub/Iur) or CDMA/EVDO user Best Effort-6: Inter-User Best Effort 6 user traffic
Forwarding 2 5 Iub/Iur OR CDMA/EVDO BE) over forward traffic channels
AF22 20 3 Q5
PS traffic (Background ("THP4" in WCDMA/HSPA on Iub/Iur) or CDMA/EVDO user Best Effort-5: Inter-User Best Effort 5 user AF23 22
traffic over forward traffic channels
PS traffic (QCI7 = Interactive/THP2) AF11 10
Assured Non-GBR Data (all PS traffic
Forwarding 1 6 except HSPA on Iub/Iur ) PS traffic (QCI8 = Interactive/THP3)
AF12 12 2 Q6 Q4 Q3
PS traffic (QCI9 = Background ("THP4") AF13 14
Best Effort 7 Other types of traffic IMS self provisioning, service network access, etc. BE/CS0 0 1 Additional queue(s), Up
to eight queues in total
Call and Packet Levels in networks
Concept of blocking
Concept of blocking
Basic Notion and Parameters
QoS
QoS
Reason for Network Delay
Reason for Network Delay
Kinds of Traffic at the packet level
4G Traffic Engineering
Calculation
OFDMA Parameters
 Scalable Bandwidth: LTE has scalable bandwidth option of 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15 and 20 MHz. Higher BW
means higher peak data rate, bigger capacity and low physical layer overheads.
 Sub carrier spacing (Δf = 15 KHz) for both OFDMA and SC-FDMA and the symbol time Tsymbol = 1/ Δf =
66.7 µs
 The number of Subcarrier Nc: Nc x Δf = BW. LTE use 10% channel BW as guard band (to avoid out
band emissions).
– If BW = 20MHz -> Transmission BW = 20-2 = 18 MHz therefore No of sub carriers Nc = 18MHz/15KHz = 1200
subcarriers.
 FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) size: it has to be a power of 2 to speed up the fft operations.
– Since the BW = 20 MHz has 1200 sub-carriers which is not a power of 2 so the number having next power of 2 is
2048 which are the Nfft.
– The rest 2048-1200 = 848 are padded with zeros.
 Sampling frequency Fs:

– Fs = No. Of FFT symbol x Δf. For BW 20 MHz, Fs = 2048 x 15KHz = 30.72 MHz. Which is 3.84*8 (sampling rate is a
multiple of chip rate 3.84 of UMTS and HSPA to keep the same clock timings between the two technologies).
OFDMA Parameters summary
OFDMA sub-carrier Types
Direct current SC have

Sub-Carrier reference
no info but used by UE
used to make
to locate the center of
measurements.
OFDM frequency band
 Different types of sub-carriers used in LTE are:

– Data sub-carrier
– Pilot sub-carrier
– DC sub-carrier
– Guard sub-carrier
Radio Interface Overview
 Physical Layer Structure

– Frame Structure for FDD & TDD variants
– Frequency Domain Organization
– Normal & Extended Cyclic Prefix
– Resource Block
– Resource Grid Definition-UL/DL
Modulation Schemes in LTE

– QPSK
– 16 QAM
– 64 QAM
LTE FDD Frame Structure
LTE TDD Frame Structure
DL/UL
2/6
4/4
6/2
6/3
7/2
8/1
3/5
LTE Resource Block & Resource Grid for UL & DL
Capacity allocation is based on

Resource Blocks
Resource Grid Definition-Ul/DL
 Resource Element (RE)

– One element in the time/frequency resource grid.
• One subcarrier in one OFDM/LFDM symbol for DL/UL. Often
used for Control channel resource assignment.
 Resource Block (RB)

– Minimum scheduling size for DL/UL data channels
– Physical Resource Block (PRB) [180 kHz x 0.5 ms]
– Virtual Resource Block (VRB) [180 kHz x 0.5 ms in virtual
frequency domain]
 Resource Block Group (RBG)

– Group of Resource Blocks
• Size of RBG depends on the system bandwidth in the cell
4G Maximum Throughput Calculation
 Explain basics using mathematical calculation and later share the excel tool prepared.
 http://anisimoff.org/eng/lte_throughput_calculator.html
5G Traffic Engineering
Calculation
NR Operating
Bands in FR1 and FR2
5G Resource Grid
Frame Structure
• Frame: 10 ms
• Subframe: Reference period of 1 ms
• Slot (slot based scheduling)
• 14 OFDM symbols
• One possible scheduling unit
• Slot aggregation allowed
• Slot length scales with the subcarrier spacing
• 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 1 𝑚𝑠/2𝜇
• Mini-Slot (non-slot based scheduling)
• 7, 4 or 2 OFDM symbols
• Minimum scheduling unit
Resource Grid
• Resource elements are grouped into Physical Resource Blocks (PRB)
• Each PRB consists of 12 Subcarriers
Resource Grid
• For each numerology and carrier, a resource grid of 𝑁𝑅𝐵 𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝜇
𝑁𝑠𝑐 𝑅𝐵 subcarriers and 𝑁𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒,𝜇 OFDM symbols is
defined
• The resource grids for all subcarrier spacing are overlapped

Sub carrier spacing 38.300
SCS PRB Frame Subfram Slots Slots Slot Symbols Symbol Support Support
e per
μ Δ = 2μ x bandwi duratio per duratio per duratio ed ed
15 dth n duratio frame subfram n slot n for data for sync
n e
71.43
0 15 kHz 180 kHz 10 ms 1 ms 10 1 1 ms 14 Yes Yes
μs
35.71
1 30 kHz 360 kHz 10 ms 1 ms 20 2 500 μs 14 μs Yes Yes
17.86
2 60 kHz 720 kHz 10 ms 1 ms 40 4 250 μs 14 Yes No
μs
1.44
3 120 kHz 10 ms 1 ms 80 8 125 μs 14 8.93 μs Yes Yes
MHz
2.88
4 240 kHz 10 ms 1 ms 160 16 62.5 μs 14 4.46 μs No Yes
MHz
5G throughput calculation
• https://5g-tools.com/5g-nr-throughput-calculator/
Modelling of Overflow
Traffic System
Microwave Link Planning
Session 1
Introduction
Course Schedule
 The day will consist of six, 45 minute sessions.
 A module may take more than one session to
complete.
 Self-assessment questions and practical examples
are included to reinforce understanding.
Aims of Course
 To enable you to plan the radio elements of a point to point microwave link against a
performance requirement and to be able to predict the performance of the link that
you have planned.
 This will involve gaining an understanding of
 Antennas  Interference
 Link Budgets  Radio Propagation
 Noise  Modulation Methods
 Fading  Performance Prediction
 Diversity Techniques Methods.
Why Microwave
Microwave radio links provide high speed (2 Mbps+) communication between two
points.
They are known to be:
 fast to implement
 convenient
 economic
when compared with wire-based alternatives.

What does “Microwave” mean
Microwave refers to a section of the RF spectrum lying between 3 and 30 GHz. It is also
referred to as “Super High Frequency” (SHF).
300 kHz 30 MHz 3 GHz 300 GHz
LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF mm

30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz
The Microwave Band
Note that frequencies up to 40 GHz are being used for “microwave” links
although the definition suggests that this frequency is in the “millimetric”
band.
System Block Diagram
Antenna
Feeder
Transceiver
The equipment layout is essentially very simple. The job of the link planner is
to specify and configure the equipment.
Answers, Please!
What power
level will we
How big must receive?
the antenna
be?
At what data How high must
rate must we What will the
loss of the the antenna
send? be?
feeder be?
What should
What the transmit
frequency will power be?
we use?
How good will the

performance be?
Percentage Outage
 Unlike an optical fibre or coaxial cable system, the received power level of a
microwave system will vary significantly with time.
 This is due to atmospheric effects and “hydrometeors” such as rain and snow.
 This will inevitably lead to the system suffering an outage for a small percentage of the
time.
 The link planner must be able to predict the outage periods as a percentage on a
particular system.
Quantitative Analysis
 The link planner must be able to determine numerical parameters to define the
microwave system.
 The course will involve methodologies, procedures and techniques for arriving at the
correct numerical solutions.
 However, all solutions should fit in with the expectations of an intuitive engineer.
Intuitive Expectations
 If the antenna is bigger, the receive power will increase.
 If the link is longer the receive power will decrease.
 We will need a higher power to transmit a higher data rate.
 The higher the power received, the lower the percentage outage.
 The longer the feeder, the lower the receive power.
Next Steps
 All the parameters affect each other in an interactive way.
 The next sections will deal with particular parameters whilst keeping one eye on the
final goal
 In the next section we shall concentrate on the antenna and methods of predicting the
receive signal power.
PDH Technology
• PDH technology used to carry data over transport medium such as

microwave radio system.
• PDH networks run in a state where different parts of the network are nearly,
but not quite perfectly, synchronized. The rate is allowed to vary by ±50
ppm of 2.048 Mbit/s.
• In PDH multiplexing is done in groups of four data streams.
• PDH bit rates

– E1 - 2.048 Mbit/Sec
– E2 - 8.448 Mbit/Sec
– E3 - 34.368 Mbit/Sec
– E4 - 139.264 Mbit/Sec
161
Higher SDH bit rates
• Higher transmission rate than the 155 Mbps (STM-1) is achieved by using
a byte interleaved multiplexing scheme.
STM-1: 155.520 Mbit/s

STM-4: 622.080 Mbit/s
STM-16: 2.488.320 Mbit/s
STM-64: 9.953.280 Mbit/s
STM-1 #1 11111 STM-4
STM-1 #2 22222 12341234123412 . . . .
STM-1 #3 33333
44444
STM-1 #4
162
Microwave Link Traffic
• Microwave Link connect two cellular network sites.
• It carry Voice, Video and Data.
• Commonly each BTS site has one E1 of transmission capacity.
• PDH or SDH are the two standards for traffic capacity over Microwave Link
in terms of
– 2 x 2 (2E1),
– 4 x 2 (4E1),
– 8 x 2 (8E1),
– 16x 2 (16E1),
– STM1 etc.
163
Channel Separation in PCM Planning
• PCM planning is basically Capacity, Equipment & Network Topology
planning.
• Capacity of a microwave link depends on the number of E1 (2Mbps) data

carried from one site to another.
All capacity uses QPSK except STM-1 requires 28 MHz (128QAM).
164
Minimum Transmit Power
165
Receiver Power Level: Example
• Receiver Threshold:
• Maximum Receive power level:
166
MPLS-Multi-Protocol Label Switching
• Layer 3 routing
• Layer 2 switching
+ =
Router ATM switch MPLS Router
167
MPLS Basic Concepts
LER
MPLS domain
IP LER
Non-MPLS LSR LSR
device LER
LSP
LSR
MPLS Non-MPLS
device
LER
168
MPLS Label Operations
• Label operations include push, swap and pop.
Push Swap
IP LER
L2 IP
L1 IP
L3 IP IP
LER
Swap Pop
169
Packet Microwave
ATM E1 ATM E1
RNC
BTS
E1 E1
1
P M M P
W P P W
E L L E SDH
SDH
3 S S 3
Tunnel
Router Eth. Eth. Router
OptiX RTN 900 OptiX RTN
900
PW label MPLS label
Eth. packet TDM frame ATM Cell
170
Approximately Hop Distances
• In case of city access network the antenna size can be mostly 0.3m and
0.6m for all PDH links.
• In case of SDH links in the access network, the antenna size can be 0.6m
and 1.2m depending on the requirement.
171
Introduction to E-Band
Microwave
millimeter wave (MM wave)
• Millimeter wave is the band of spectrum between 30 gigahertz (Ghz) and 300 Ghz.
• AKA high frequency (EHF) or very high frequency (VHF) by the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU)
• high atmospheric attenuation and are absorbed by gases in the atmosphere

E-band Wireless Propagation
• frequency bands of up to 38 GHz, the • This effect at 60 GHz in particular, where
attenuation due to the atmosphere at sea absorption increases to 15 dB/km, significantly
level is low at 0.3 dB/km or less. A small peak limits radio transmission distance at this
is seen at 23 GHz, followed by a large peak at frequency.
60 GHz, corresponding to absorption by water • A clear atmospheric window can be seen in the
vapor and oxygen molecules respectively. spectrum from around 70 GHz to 100 GHz. In
this area, low atmospheric attenuation around
0.5 dB/km occurs, close to that of the popular
microwave frequencies, and very favourable for
radio transmission. For this reason, e-band
wireless systems can transmit high data rate
signal over many miles under clear conditions.
• Wireless propagation at e-band frequencies

is well understood.
Weather and Other Effects at E-Band
• The physical properties of high
frequency radio transmission
in the presence of various
weather conditions are well
understood. With proven
models of worldwide weather
characteristics allowing link
fading to be understood, link
distances of several miles over
most of the globe can
confidently be realized.
• As with any radio transmission
above about 10 GHz, rain
attenuation will place natural
limits on link distances.
• millimetre-wave transmissions
can experience significant rain
attenuations in the presence
of rain
• “Heavy” rainfall at the rate of
25 mm/hour (1” per hour)
yields just over 10 dB/km
attenuation at e-band
frequencies.
• This increases to 30 dB/km for
100 mm/hour (4” per hour)
“tropical” rain.
• These values of attenuation
are used in link planning to
determine the maximum link
length allowed to overcome
rain events.
• Fog and Clouds
• One benefit of e-band wireless is that it is essentially unaffected by fog and clouds.
• Thick fog with a visibility of 50 m (150 foot) has a density of about 0.1 g/m3, which yields an almost
negligible attenuation of 0.4 dB/km at e-band frequencies [9].
• This almost absence of attenuation is due to the fog and cloud particles being so much smaller than
the wavelength of the e-band radio signal (roughly 4 mm or one-sixth of an inch).
• As such, minimal scattering from the fog and cloud’s tiny water particles occurs.
• Airborne dust, sand and other small particles

• Similar to fog and clouds, e-band wireless signals are not scattered from particles of much less than
4 mm in the transmission path.
• This property makes any small airborne particle essentially invisible to e-band wireless systems.
Technical Attributes of E-band Wireless
• Firstly, the gain of an antenna increases with
frequency. Thus it is possible to realize large gains
from relatively small antennas at e-band
frequencies.
• At the popular 18 GHz common carrier band, such
an antenna has about 32.5 dBi of gain. At e-band,
an equivalent size antenna has 44 to 45 dBi of
gain.
• This equates to an extra 24 dB or so of system gain
per link – a significant number when one
considers that just an additional 6 dB of system
gain allows a link to be doubled in length.
• Therefore, under ideal conditions, a 24 dB
improvement in link margin equates to a four-fold
improvement in link distance.
• An alternative comparison is that a 4 ft antenna at

18 GHz has the same gain as a 1ft antenna at e-
band, with obvious reduced cost, ease of
installation and planning & zoning benefits.
Technical Attributes of E-band Wireless
• Secondly, the FCC permits e-band radios to operate with up to 3W of output power.
• This is significantly higher than available at other millimetre-wave bands (for example, 25 dB higher than
the 10 mW limit at 60 GHz).
• Also the 5 GHz wide e-band channels enable the radio to pass high data rate signals with only low level
modulation schemes (for example, FSK or BPSK modulation can easily allow 2 Gbps data rates in the 5GHz
channels).
• The output power in an e-band system is relatively high as the low-order modulation scheme places
minimum linearity requirements on the transmitter’s power amplifier (PA) and so the PA can be run close
to its maximum rated output power.
• A high data rate SDH microwave radio (incidentally offering less than one-sixth the data rate of an e-band
radio) has to use 128 or higher modulation to compress the data in the small megahertz wide channel.
• Here power amplifier linearity is of utmost importance, and amplifiers have to be backed off significantly,
throttling back output power to many dBs below rated outputs.
• Together, this high output power and high antenna gain allows e-band radios to operate with very high
radiated power (EIRP) and hence overcome the higher rain fading seen at higher frequencies, enabling
system performances that are equivalent to the widely used microwave point-to-point radios.
E Band
E-Band spectrum characteristics and nature:
E-Band: since 2000, regulators have made available high frequency bands at 71-76 GHz and 81-86
GHz. E-Band enables gigabit-per-second data rates given the huge amount of available spectrum
(10 GHz) without any oxygen absorption.
Given the different nature of the two frequencies, different scenarios might be foreseen for each
of them, including macro and small cell backhaul, front-haul applications, Line of Sight (LoS)
today and most probably future near Line of Sight (nLoS) or No Line of Sight (NLoS). Nonetheless,
regulations for these two frequency bands aren’t always already decided, opened and planned
and, especially for the V-Band case, the related portions of the spectrum differ from country to
country making it very fragmented.
E Band
Bandwidth of E-Band:
E-Band is intended to cover 71-76 GHz and 81-86 GHz.
Current traditional frequencies below 50 GHz are already very very crowded and exploited, hence the
need to use higher frequency bands in future-proof networks. Due to technology evolution and
availability of wide channel bandwidths, the use of frequency in the E-Band appears to be of interest
for the current and future needs for backhaul networks.
E-Band Regulation overview
ETSI technical specs for operation in E-Band
• Specific channel arrangements for channel sizes ranging from 250 to 4750 MHz.
• The arrangements remain flexible permitting TDD and FDD applications with 10 GHz as
well as 2.5 GHz duplex separation.
E-Band- ECC and ITU comparison
• The option to subdivide a 250MHz channel into 4x62,5MHz or 2x125MHz, not

reported here, is foreseen in ECC/REC(05)07 only.
E-Band country by country overview
• Green - > Open

• Red - > Closed
• Blue - > Under Review
• Grey - > No Information
E Band
Advantages of E-Band:
• The 71-76 and 81-86 GHz bands are used for ultra-high capacity point-to-point
communications.
• The advantages of E-band are its wide spectrum i.e.10 GHz and channels that enable very high
capacities similar to fiber-like bandwidth in Gbps.
• E-band offers the highest data rates of any wireless technology, with systems available that offer
1Gbps and above full-duplex throughput.
• Improvement in modulation from 512 QAM to 4096QAM has improved the Spectrum
efficiency by 30% in the traditional band.
• Adoption of E-band for high throughput in Urban areas having high data demand
E Band
Applications of E-Band:
• Due to High capacity, E-band compliment Fibre by providing high

throughput 2.5 Gbps
(With Polarization techniques it can go up to 5Gbps).
• Mobile backhaul, with advent 3G /4G demand for backhaul ,demand

cannot be supplied by
traditional backhaul , hence E-Band supplement the high data demands
• E-band Solve the spectrum Congestion problem in Urban/sub urban
areas, where spectrum is running out.
• It also can be used for small cell backhaul

NokiaEDU
Telecom
KPI Overview
RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

Module Objectives
• After completing this module, you will be able to:

• Name the documentation for detailed definitions of Nokia KPIs
• Explain how to derive network KPIs based on performance counters
189 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

Key Performance Indicators
KPI groups overview
• Accessibility KPIs characterize the availability of a service, or service element to its users
• Retainability (reliability) KPIs characterize Service Drop Rates or to Transport Error Rates
- that is, the ratio between erroneous or lost data units and the overall number of data units sent
• Mobility KPIs build a group of statistics related to hand-over procedures
- They could be also discussed in the Latency and Accessibility groups as well, because HO-related KPIs
are either service interrupt time or success ratio type KPIs
• Integrity KPIs identify the quality and power of the radio transmission and are one of the most
important indicators of network performance
• Usage KPIs give the information on cell resources consumption and throughput
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Air interface KPIs LTE
• KPIs are categorized to distinguish different performance aspects.
• The names indicate the respective category according to 3GPP32.410 and 3GPP32.450.
Integrity:
Average CQI
Accessibility: Average Latency
RRC Setup Success Rate RLC PDU
E-RAB Setup Success Retransmission
Usage:
Rate
eNodeB1 Cell Availability eNodeB2
S1 Setup Success
Resource Block
Call Setup Success Rate
Usage
IP/PDCP/RLC Layer
Throughput
X redirection
Inter RAT
UE X2
X
Retainability:
Mobility:
RRC Drop Rate
Intra eNodeB HO
E-RAB Drop Rate
Success Rate
Inter eNodeB HO
Success Rate
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Introduction
List of top level KPIs Category Key Performance Indicator
Availability E-UTRAN Cell Availability Ratio
E-UTRAN Initial E-RAB Accessibility
E-UTRAN Total E-UTRAN RRC Connection Setup Success Ratio
E-UTRAN Initial E-RAB Setup Success Ratio
Accessibility E-UTRAN Data Radio Bearer Setup Success Ratio
E-UTRAN RRC Paging Discard Ratio
• These are most E-UTRAN RACH Setup Completion Success Rate
E-UTRAN E-RAB Setup Success Ratio
important LTE KPIs E-UTRAN E-RAB Drop Ratio, RAN View
per each category Retainability E-UTRAN Total E-UTRAN RRC Connection Re-establishment Success Ratio
E-UTRAN E-RAB Retainability Rate, RAN View, RNL Failure with UE Lost
E-UTRAN Average PDCP SDU Delay in DL, QCI1-9
E-UTRAN RLC PDU Re-transmission Ratio Uplink
E-UTRAN RLC PDU Re-transmission Ratio Downlink
E-UTRAN PDCP SDU Loss Ratio in the UL
Integrity / Quality E-UTRAN PDCP SDU Loss Ratio in the DL
E-UTRAN Average CQI
E-UTRAN incoming IP Traffic Error Ratio
E-UTRAN Average Latency Downlink
E-UTRAN Average Latency Uplink
E-UTRAN Total HO Success Ratio, intra eNB
E-UTRAN Total HO Success Ratio, inter eNB X2 based
Mobility
E-UTRAN Total HO Success Ratio, inter eNB S1 based
E-UTRAN Inter RAT Total HO Success Ratio
E-UTRAN average PDCP Layer Active Cell Throughput DL
E-UTRAN average PDCP Layer Active Cell Throughput UL
E-UTRAN Average Active UEs with data in the buffer DL
E-UTRAN Average Active UEs with data in the buffer UL
Usage E-UTRAN Averaged IP scheduled Throughput in DL, QCI1-9
E-UTRAN Averaged IP scheduled Throughput in UL, QCI1-9
E-UTRAN Average RRC Connected UEs
E-UTRAN Average PRB usage per TTI UL
E-UTRAN average PRB usage per TTI DL
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Introduction – Why Transport KPI for RF
Engineers
• Why does an RF Engineer need to know about transport?

• To detect transport limitation of bandwidth through over subscription
• To determine possible misconfiguration of network causing throughput limitations
not caused by over subscription
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General Measurement Overview
Transmission Measurements
• IP Statistics
• PHB Statistics
• Ethernet Link
• IP Sec
• IP Filtering
• VLAN IP Statistics
• VLAN PHB Statistics
• LTE VLAN Statistics
• Ethernet Interface Statistics
• LTE L2 Switch Statistics
• LTE TWAMP Statistics
• LTE TAC Statistics
• LTE TOP FreqSync Statistics
• LTE TOP PhaseSync Statistics
• WIFI statistics
• LTE_IPv6_Stats
• LTE_IPV6_PHB_Stats
• LTE_VLAN_IPv6_Stats
• LTE_VLAN_IPv6_PHB_Stats
• LTE_IPv4_Stats
• LTE_IPv4_PHB_Stats
• LTE_VLAN_IPv4_Stats
• LTE_VLAN_IPv4_PHB_Stats
• LTE IP Data Traffic Volume Statistics
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Introduction A
• To detect transport limitation of bandwidth through over subscription

• Each link is a 100 Megabit Link. What are the implications to RF?
Residential
Integrated Switch
and Router
Router
Business District
• What is Over Subscription

and why?
• Predicting traffic flow
and under
dimensioning the link
to use the bandwidth
for other links
Entertainment District • Less cost for
transport
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Introduction
• Residential and Business Switch connection
• The time frames for each of these zones offset their busy hour thus only at Rush hour
there might be a limitation.
Residential
Integrated Switch
and Router
Router
Business District
Microsoft Excel
Worksheet
Entertainment District
196 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

Introduction A
• Another reason to know transport statistics is to determine possible misconfiguration

of network causing throughput limitations not caused by over subscription
• Example – Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) Configuration incorrect at Switch
Layer
MTU Size
Ideal Conditions with Max Throughput
Data Size
Padding
MTU Size
Segmented Packet Segmeted Packet
Ethernet Frame Ethernet Frame
• TCP Windowing configuration can cause large number of TCP ACK/NACKs

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LTE Transmission measurements
• The Performance Package for Transport, provides detailed insight into the performance of the transport interface
of the eNodeB on IP layer.
Ethernet IP MME
eNB IP Router
SAE-GW
S1 / X2 S1
U/C-plane U/C-plane
IP/IPSec IP/IPSec (Transport) IP
Eth MAC Eth MAC Eth MAC Eth MAC
Eth PHY Eth PHY Eth PHY Eth PHY
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LTE IP Statistics
• Counter order (All IP Statistics/IP Version 6 IP Statistics/IP Version 4 Statistics)

• LTE IP statistics measurement (M51120/M51140/M51144) contains PM counters to monitor the performance of IP layer of
S1/X2 interface (both plain and VLAN based).
• With counters included in this measurement user is able to measure amount of:
- incoming/outgoing octets/packets
- incoming erroneous packets
- outgoing packets/octets dropped due to congestion
• LTE VLAN IP statistics measurement (M51127/M51142/M51146) contains PM counters to monitor the performance of VLAN
interface
- incoming/outgoing octets/packets
- incoming erroneous packets
- outgoing packets/octets dropped due to congestion
S1 / X2 S1 / X2
U/C-plane U/C-plane
IP/IPSec IP/IPSec
Eth MAC Eth MAC

S1/X2 VLAN3
S1/X2
Eth PHY VLAN2 Eth PHY
Interface Interface
VLAN1
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LTE Per Hop Behavior (PHB) Statistics
• Counter order (All IP Statistics/IP Version 6 IP Statistics/IP Version 4 Statistics)

• LTE PHB statistics measurement (M51121/51141/51145) contains PM counters to monitor the performance of IP layer of
S1/X2 interface (both plain and VLAN based)
• Granularity of this measurement allows user to measure amount of:
- incoming/outgoing data/packets transmitted
- outgoing data/packets dropped due to congestion
per each PHB (Per-Hop Behavior) class defined for DiffServ (Differentiated services)*
• LTE VLAN PHB statistics measurement (M51128/M51143/M51147) contains PM counters to monitor the performance of IP
layer of S1/X2 interface per VLAN interface
• Granularity of this measurement allows user to measure amount of:
- incoming/outgoing data/packets transmitted
- outgoing data/packets dropped due to congestion
per each PHB (Per-Hop Behavior) class defined for DiffServ (Differentiated services)*
S1 / X2
S1 / X2
U/C-plane
U/C-plane
IP/IPSec
IP/IPSec
AF2 Eth MAC
S1/X2 AF2 Eth MAC
S1/X2 EF AF1
Eth PHY Interface EF AF1
Interface AF4 VLAN Eth PHY
AF4
AF3 BE AF3 BE
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LTE Ethernet Statistics
• LTE Ethernet statistics measurement (M51123) contains PM counters to monitor Ethernet link performance
- incoming/outgoing packets/octets
- incoming/outgoing packets/octets discarded due to rate shaping
- incoming erroneous Ethernet frames
- incoming Ethernet packets due to VLAN mismatch
- outgoing Ethernet packets discarded due to egress shaping per queue per interface
- ingress Ethernet 64-byte blocks discarded due to rate limiting
S1 / X2
U/C-plane S1 / X2
IP/IPSec U/C-plane
IP/IPSec
Eth MAC
S1/X Q4 Eth MAC
2 Eth PHY
Interface S1/X2 Q1 Q5
Eth PHY
Interface Q2
Q3 Q6
Valid for M51123C17 (ethIfOutDiscShaping_Q5) to
M51123C22 (ethIfOutDiscShaping_Q6)
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LTE IP Sec
• LTE IP Sec measurement contains PM counters to monitor performance of IPSec protected traffic on S1/X2
- incoming/outgoing protected frames
- incoming/outgoing discarded frames
- incoming/outgoing bypassed frames
S1 / X2
U/C-plane
U
IP/IPSec
Eth MAC
C S1/X2
VLAN
IPSec Interface Eth PHY
(optional)
tunnel
M
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Performance measurement counters
LTE IP Filtering
• LTE IP filtering measurement contains PM counters to monitor the firewall functionality

of the BTS
- packets discarded due to filter violations
- packets dropped due to ingress rate limiting
May be an indication of Throughput
issues due to incorrect filter rules
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LTE Transport Load
“Side Haul Traffic”
• Transport Load measurement (M8004)

measures GTP-U protocol procedures:
(E)-RRC
(E)-RRC User
User PDUs
PDUs .. User
User PDUs
PDUs
- X2 signaling volume (incoming/outgoing)
PDCP
PDCP
- X2 user data volume (incoming/outgoing) RLC
RLC
MAC
MAC
LTE-L1
LTE-L1 (FDD/TDD-OFDMA/SC-FDMA)
(FDD/TDD-OFDMA/SC-FDMA)
• Based on those counters KPI’s for data volumes and
average throughput are composed (by division by LTE-Uu
eNB
measurement duration) X2-UP
X2-CP (User Plane)
(Control Plane) User
UserPDUs
PDUs
X2-AP
X2-AP GTP-U
GTP-U
X2
SCTP
SCTP UDP
UDP
IP
IP IP
IP
L1/L2
L1/L2 L1/L2
L1/L2
eNB
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Transport Related Measurements
M51129 (VLAN Interface) and M51130 (Ether. Interface): Interface Statistics

• Monitors the performance of each Interface.
• Object: IVIF and IEIF.
• Include counters for:
• Number of received packets and octets.
• Number of transmitted packets and octets.
Helps to detect throughput on the Transport

side. Compare with PDCP Throughput data to
note possible air interface drops (DL) and
network interface drops (UL)
May also be used to help indicate TCP

windowing and MTU Frame issues
205 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

M51136: Transport Admission Control TCP/UDP Layer Access Control
• Monitors Transmission Admission Control performance.

• Object: TAC.
• Number of successful and rejected connection requests per type of request (Normal,
Emergency and handover).
Timing over Packet IEEE 1588

M51132: TWAMP Statistics measurement statistics
• Measurements related to the LTE574: IP Network Measurements feature. It
measures the Round Trip Time (RTT) and Packet Loss Ratio (PLR)
• Object: TWAMP.
• M51132C0 / M51132C1 / M51132C2: Average, Max and Min RTT.
• M51132C3: Number of lost TWAMP messages.
• M51132C4: Number of transmitted TWAMP messages
Note: Timing over Packet is critical for the synchronization of sites to a common timing
source when GPS is not available such as in Metropolitan Train systems.
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M51137: TOP FreqSync Statistics Timing over Packet IEEE 1588v2

measurement statistics
• Monitors ToP FreqSync performance.
• Object: TOPF. Problems in these statistics may be
• Include counters for: seen in Handover and Interference
• Number of received synch. Messages problems when the sites are
• Min, Max and Ave synch. Error (in micro seconds) synchronized to the same timing
source
M51138: TOP PhaseSync Statistics

• Monitors ToP PhaseSync performance.
• Object: TOPP.
• Number of received synch. Messages
• Min, Max and Ave estimated phase error
Note: Timing over Packet is critical for the synchronization of sites to a common timing
source when GPS is not available such as in Metropolitan Train systems.
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QoS in IP networks
Privileged and confidential. The information contained in this material is privileged and confidential, and is intended
only for the use of the individual to whom it is addressed and others who have been specifically authorized to receive
it. If you are not the intended recipient, you are hereby notified that any dissemination, distribution or copying of this
material is strictly prohibited. If you have received this material in error, please destroy it immediately.
QoS in IP networks
Contents
• OSI
• Protocol Stack
• Port numbers
• TCP/UDP
• The need for QoS
• LTE Network QoS
• IP precedence,
• Differentiated services (DiffServ)
• Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS)
209
Protocol Encapsulation
User Data
HOST A HOST B
APPLICATION User Data APPLICATION
PRESENTATION User Data PRESENTATION
SESSION User Data SESSION
TRANSPORT User Data TRANSPORT
NETWORK User Data NETWORK
LINK User Data LINK
PHYSICAL User Data PHYSICAL
NETWORK (Transmission Channel)
210
Protocol Stack
Network
Data Network
Application Application
Message
Message
Presentation Presentation
Message
Session Session
Segment
Transport TCP/UDP Transport
Packet Packet
Network (IP) Network Network
Frame Frame
Data Link(ATM/Ethernet) Data Link ATM Data Link
Signal Signal
Physical (SDH) Physical Physical
Host or End Relay or Intermediate Host or End

System (ES) System (IS) System (ES)
Layer 3- Switching
211
Transport layer protocols
 TCP/IP is based on a four layer model
OSI 7 layer model TCP/IP

Application
Application layer
Presentation
Services
Session
Transport TCP UDP
ICMP IPv4, IPv6
Network IP
ARP/RARP
Ethernet/ATM/Frame Data Link
Data Link Relay etc
Physical Physical
SDH
212
Port numbers
 Port numbers are used by TCP and UDP to identify the source and destination
application running in multi tasking systems.
 Dynamic port numbers are used by the client
 Well known port numbers are used by the server:
TCP 20 FTP Data
TCP 21 FTP
TCP 23 Telnet
TCP 25 SMTP
UDP 53 Domain
UDP 67 BOOTP Server
FTP Server
21
TCP UDP TCP UDP

IP IP
Ethernet Ethernet
213
TCP
NETWORK
LAYER(3)
1 PACKET
3 2
PACKET SWITCH
3
SWITCH 1
PACKET 2 3 1
2
3 2 1 SWITCH
PACKET
1
PACKET
SWITCH
SWITCH
eNodeB
LTE: All services would be packet-switched
214
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
Source Port Indicates the port of the sending process. It is the port to
which replies are addressed.
Destination Port Specifies the port of the destination process on the
destination host.
Length The length (in bytes) of this user datagram, including the
header.
Checksum
215
LTE is all IP
HSS
S1
MME
Serving
Gateway
Network Test Server

Router / Gateway 10.X.XX.
X2 for Drive testing
192.128.10.101
192.128.10.0
PCI
GCID
VLAN ID
Host address: 192.128.10.1
Mask : 255.255.255.0
Default Gateway: 192.128.10.101
216
The need for QoS
QoS developments in IP networks is inspired by new types of

applications:
–VoIP, VoIPtrunks
•Low bit rate variability, strict delay requirements, jitter
sensitive
–Audio/video streaming
•Low/medium bit rate variability, elastic delay and jitter
requirements
–Networked virtual environments, interactive gaming
•Medium bit rate variability, delay intolerant, jitter
sensitive,error intolerant
217
3G Services and QoS Classes
RT
Telephony
Video Telephony
VoIP •Each application is
DELAY SENSITIVE
Radio Streaming Video different in Nature.

Some are highly
Web Browsing Location Services Computer Games
delay
E-mail Server Backups
NRT
Casual Critical
INTEGRITY
VoIP requires very low jitter, a one-way

delay in the order of 150 milliseconds
218
EPC
Http VoIP Providing low loss, latency and jitter for
FTP streaming some traffic aggregate means ensuring
SMTP
that the aggregate sees no (or very
NON REAL REAL TIME small) queues.
TIME SERVICES
SERVICES
Port Number Port Number

TCP UDP
IP
219
LTE Network QoS
LTE-Uu S1-U S5
Serving P-
PDN
Gateway Gateway
EPS Bearer External Bearer
Radio Bearer S1 - Bearer S5 - Bearer
220
Packet classification
Buffering issues may be overcome by enabling separate voice and video data
queues in the network switches and routers.
Separate queues allow time critical data such as audio and video to be transmitted
in a priority fashion.
Queuing is enabled by some type of packet classification or prioritization scheme.

Several different schemes currently exist for providing priority to network packets.
These include:
• Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP),

• IP precedence,
• Differentiated services (DiffServ)
• Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS).
221
The Original IPv4 ToS Byte
0 4 8 16 19 24 31
VER HLE
S N
ToS Total Length Precedence was a 3 bit field which
Flag
Identification
s
Fragment Offset treats high priority packets as more
Time To Live Protocol Header Checksum important than other packets.
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address If a router is congested and needs to
IP Options (If any) Padding discard some packets, it will discard
DATA
packets having lowest priority first.
...
Although precedence field was part

of version 4, it was never used.
The 3 bits restrict the number of

possible priority classes to eight.
Control classes are usually reserved

for router-generated packets such as
routing updates, ICMP messages
222
DiffServ Codepoint Field
0 4 8 16 19 24 31
VERS HLEN ToS Total Length
Identification Flags Fragment Offset
Time To Live Protocol Header Checksum
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
IP Options (If any) Padding
DATA
...
The modern redefinition of the ToS field is a six-bit Differentiated Services Code
Point (DSCP) field and a two-bit Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) field.
Class Selector
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) Explicit Congestion
Notification
223
DS routing
DS requires routers
that support queue
scheduling and
management to
prioritize outbound
packets and control
the queue depth to
minimize congestion
in the
network.
224
DiffServ
DiffServ relies on a mechanism to classify and mark packets as belonging to a
specific class.
DiffServ-aware routers implement per-hop behaviors (PHBs), which define the

packet-forwarding properties associated with a class of traffic.
225
Classification and marking
Traffic may be classified by many different parameters, such as source
address, destination address or port numbers and assigned to a specific traffic
class.
Packet classification and policing can be carried out at the edge of the network
by edge router
226
Different traffic classes
In theory, a network could have up to 64 (i.e. 26) different traffic classes using
different DSCPs.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Notification
In practice, however, most networks use the following commonly defined Per-Hop
Behaviors:
Default PHB (Per hop behavior)— which is typically best-effort traffic

Expedited Forwarding (EF) PHB— dedicated to low-loss, low-latency traffic
Assured Forwarding (AF) PHB— gives assurance of delivery under prescribed
conditions
Class Selector PHBs— which maintain backward compatibility with the IP
Precedence field.
227
Default PHB
Essentially, any traffic that does not meet the requirements of any of the other
defined classes is placed in the default PHB.
Typically, the default PHB has best-effort forwarding characteristics. The

recommended DSCP for the default PHB is 000000B (0).
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Notification
228
Expedited Forwarding (EF) PHB
Expedited Forwarding (EF) PHB
The IETF defines Expedited Forwarding behavior in RFC 3246. The EF PHB has
the characteristics of low delay, low loss and low jitter. These characteristics are
suitable for voice, video and other real time services.
EF traffic is often given strict priority queuing above all other traffic classes.
The recommended DSCP for expedited forwarding is 101110B (46 or 2EH
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Notification
EF PHB is especially suitable for applications (like VoIP) that require very low
packet loss, guaranteed bandwidth, low delay and low jitter.
229
DiffServ Per-Hop Behaviours
Expedite Forwarding PHB (EF-PHB)

Provide guaranteed bandwidth low delay and jitter.
Strict admission control: Non-conformant traffic is dropped or
shaped.
EF traffic should not be influenced by the other traffic classes.
•Each PHB is mapped to a

Rate I/F
queue EF Q1 limiting SP shaping
•EF is served as Strict Q2 W1
AF4
Priority AF3 Q3 W2
•Other PHBs are served as W3
WFQ
AF2 Q4
WFQ W4
•Lowest priority queues are AF1 Q5 W5
controlled by a WFQ BE Q6
scheduler (weights: w1-w5)
230
Assured Forwarding
Assured forwarding allows the operator to provide assurance of delivery as long

as the traffic does not exceed some subscribed rate.
Traffic that exceeds the subscription rate faces a higher probability of being
dropped if congestion occurs.
IP datagram
Number of bits
4 4 8 variable
Version
Header
Length
Type of
Service
... Data
The AFxy PHB defines four AFx
classes: AF1, AF2, AF3, and AF4.
6 MSBs LSBs are not assigned
PHB determines the

DSCP Priority policy: Each class is assigned a certain
EF – strict priority
queue. EF AF4 – highest among AF amount of buffer space and
AF1 – lowest among AF
AF4 BE – lowest priority interface bandwidth, dependent on
AF3 the SLA with the Service
AF2 Provider/policy).
DSCP AF1 Queue based on PHB
Classifier
switch BE
231
Assured Forwarding (AF)
The AF behavior group defines four separate AF classes with Class 4 having the
highest priority.
Within each class, packets are given a drop precedence (high, medium or low, where
higher precedence means more dropping).
The combination of classes and drop precedence yields twelve separate DSCP
encodings from AF11 through AF43 .
higher precedence means more dropping highest priority
232
DiffServ Per-Hop Behaviours
Assured Forwarding PHB (AF-PHB)

•Four classes are defined that provide different forwarding
guarantees. Within each class, there are three drop
precedence.
•Non-conformant traffic is remarked.
Weighted Fair Queuing EF Q1 Rate

limiting SP I/F
shaping
(WFQ)assigns a weight Q2
AF4 W1
to each flow, which W2
AF3 Q3
determines the transmit W3
WFQ
AF2 Q4
order for queued W4
Q5
packets. In this AF1 W5
scheme, lower weights BE Q6
are served first.
233
Class Selector (CS) PHB
Prior to DiffServ, IPv4 networks could use the Precedence

field in the TOS byte of the IPv4 header to mark priority
traffic.
If a packet is received from a non-DiffServ aware router

that used IP precedence markings, the DiffServ router can
still understand the encoding as a Class Selector code
point
Class Selector
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Notification
234
Summary
Different Per-Hop Behaviours (PHB)are defined for

each traffic class.
DSCP
DSCP EF
DSCP AF4
DSCP AF3
DSCP
AF2
Operator
AF1
DSCP configurable
BE
DSCP
mapping
6 Default PHBs
corresponding to the IP
egress scheduling queues
235
EPS Bearer
236
User plane - Bearers
LTE-Uu S1-U S5
Serving P-
PDN
Gateway Gateway
End to End Bearer
EPS Bearer External Bearer
Radio Bearer S1 - Bearer S5 - Bearer
E-RAB
Evolved Packet switched System

237
Bearers
LTE-Uu S1-U S5
Serving P-
PDN PDN
Gateway Gateway
Packet
Scheduling Default Bearer
Dedicated Bearer
Default EPS Bearer :
Does not allocate any
Be established during Attach Process
additional IP address to
Allocate IP address to UE
UE
Does not have specifc QoS (only Nominal QoS is applied).
Is linked to a specified
Packet default EPS bearer
Scheduling Dedicated Bearer
Dedicated Bearer
Normally be established during the call setup after idle mode.
Have a specific (usually guaranteed) QoS
Default bearers are created on a per PDN

Packet
Scheduling Default Bearer basis.
Each default bearer comes with an IP

Packet
Scheduling Dedicated Bearer address
238
Bearers-QoS Class Identifier
LTE-Uu S1-U S5
Serving P-
PDN
Gateway Gateway
Packet
Scheduling
Default Bearer
Packet
Scheduling Dedicated Bearer
A packet with higher

priority can be
expected to be
scheduled before a
packet with lower
priority.
239
Traffic Flow Templates (TFT)
Non Real
Real Time
Time
Port Numbers
TCP UDP
IP
240
Each EPS bearer is associated with a traffic flow template (TFT).
This comprises a set of packet filters, one for each of the packet flows that
make up the bearer.
Traffic flow template is always associated with dedicated bearer and while
default bearer may or may not have TFT.
EPS Bearer ID
Packet
Packet
Dedicated
filters Data Bearer 8 GTP-U Tunnel 8 GTP-U Tunnel 8
EPS bearer
filters
Packet Packet
Data Bearer 8 GTP-U Tunnel 8 GTP-U Tunnel 8
filters filters
• Source address (with subnet mask)

• IP protocol number (TCP, UDP)
• Destination port
• Source port range P-
• Type of Service (TOS) (IPv4) Gateway
• Flow-Label (IPv6 only)
241
0 4 8 16 19 24 31
VERS HLEN Service Type Total Length
Identification Flags Fragment Offset
Time To Live Protocol Header Checksum
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
IP Options (If any) Padding
DATA
...
EPS Bearer ID
Packet
Packet
Dedicated
filters Data Bearer 8 GTP-U Tunnel 8 GTP-U Tunnel 8
EPS bearer
filters
Packet Packet
filters filters
• Source address (with subnet mask)

• IP protocol number (TCP, UDP)
• Destination port
• Source port range P-
• Type of Service (TOS) (IPv4) Gateway
• Flow-Label (IPv6 only)
242
TFT is set of all packet filter associated with an EPS bearer
ACTIVATE DEDICATED EPS BEARER CONTEXT REQUEST
EPS Bearer ID
P- Dedicated
Gateway EPS bearer
The parameters include:
• The source IP address
• The destination IP address
• The source port number
• The destination port number
• The protocol identification (i.e., TCP or UDP).
Up Link Traffic Flow Template (UL TFT) : - Set of uplink packet

filters in TFT

• The source IP address
The Uplink TFT is established by • The source port number
the PCRF and sent to the UE in the • The destination port number
• The protocol identification (i.e., TCP or UDP).
context setup messages. DL
filtering is done in the P-GW and Downlink Traffic Flow Template (DL TFT) : - Set of downlink
packet filters in TFT
it's TFT is also established in the
PCRF
243
1Pv4-
10.1.10.6 Ipv4 address : 10.1.10.6
Ipv4 mask 255.0.0.0

Dedicated EPS bearer
EPS Bearer ID = 6
244
PORT
Packet Filter
1Pv4- ID=8
10.1.10.6

Dedicated EPS bearer
EPS Bearer ID = 6
245
TWO PACKET FILTERS
MME
TWO PACKET FILTERS

Application 1 Application 2
The MME shall initiate the dedicated bearer context activation
procedure by sending an ACTIVATE DEDICATED EPS
BEARER CONTEXT REQUEST message and start the timer
TCP T3485
EPS ID =6
LINK EPS BEARER = 5
Packet Filter 0 Packet Filter 1

Packet Filter ID=0 Packet Filter ID=8 Data Bearer 5 GTP-U Tunnel 5 GTP-U Tunnel 5
IP address 10.1.8.6 IP address 10.1.8.6
Port 61000 Port 31050
DEDICATED EPS BEARER

246
Activate Dedicated EPS Bearer Context Accept
Activate Dedicated EPS Bearer Context

Request

Accept MME
Upon receipt of the Activate
Dedicated EPS Bearer
Context Accept message, the
MME shall stop the timer
T3485
The linked EPS Bearer Identity included in the ACTIVATE

DEDICATED EPS BEARER CONTEXT REQUEST message indicates
to the UE to which default bearer, IP address and PDN the dedicated
bearer is linked.
247
Activate Dedicated EPS Bearer Context Reject

Request
Activate Dedicated EPS Bearer Context TFT’s contain packet filtering

Reject information to identify and
map packets to specific
ESM cause that typically indicates one of the following values: bearers.
#26: insufficient resources • The source IP address
#31: request rejected, unspecified
#41: semantic error in the Traffic Flow Templates TFT operation
#42: syntactical error in the Traffic Flow Templates TFT operation • The source port number
#43: invalid EPS bearer identity
#44: semantic error(s) in packet filter(s)
• The destination port
#45: syntactical error(s) in packet filter(s) or number
#95 – 111: protocol errors
• The protocol identification
(i.e., TCP or UDP).
248
Multiprotocol Label Switching
249
MPLS
MPLS is designed to
bring the speed of OSI layer 2, the
link/switching layer, up to layer 3, the
network protocol layer.
Each packet is assigned a routing label

based upon several
factors including the packet priority and the
ultimate packet destination.
MPLS operates at an OSI Model layer that is generally considered to lie

between traditional definitions of Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) and Layer 3
(Network Layer), and thus is often referred to as a "Layer 2.5" protocol
250
MPLS header
• A 20-bit label value. A label with the value of 1 represents the router alert label.
• 3-bit Traffic Class field for QoS (quality of service) priority (experimental) and
ECN (Explicit Congestion Notification).
• 1-bit bottom of stack flag. If this is set, it signifies that the current label is the
last in the stack.
• 8-bit TTL (time to live) field
251
Label edge router
A label edge router (LER, also known as edge LSR) is a router that operates at
the edge of an MPLS network and acts as the entry and exit points for the
network. LERs respectively, push an MPLS label onto an incoming packet and
pop it off the outgoing packet. Alternatively,
GSM GSM
E1 E1
LER MPLS network LER
3G ATM 3G ATM
IP Network IP Network
LTE- LTE-
Ethernet MPLS supports the transport of a wide range of layer 2 Ethernet
and layer 3 services, including TDM,
ATM, and IP, and is thus able to support the migration
from from legacy (TDM and ATM) to IP based RANs
252
Label switch router (LSR)
A MPLS router that performs routing based only on the label is called a label
switch router (LSR)
As your corporate data

enters the carrier
network, a label is
GSM attached to each
MPLS network packet.
E1
This label uniquely
identifies your Virtual
LER
Label switch router LER Private Network (VPN)
3G ATM in a shared
infrastructure and keeps
it private.
Upon reaching its

IP Network
LTE- destination, the label is
Ethernet removed, returning the
data packet to its
original state. 253
Packet-forwarding decisions
• In an MPLS network, data packets are assigned labels.
• Packet-forwarding decisions are made solely on the contents of this

label, without the need to examine the packet itself.
• This allows one to create end-to-end circuits across any type of

transport medium, using any protocol.
254
Label Stack
•MPLS IP packets can carry anywhere from 1, 2, 3, . . . .
up to “m” labels,
•Only the top of the stack is accessible to the router
•The bottom label is Label 1, and the top label is Label m
•Label 1 refers to the last router in the path, and Label 2
bottom label Label 1 refers to the next hop router
•The “S” bit is set to 1 for the bottom label, and to 0 for all
other labels
255
Label Stack
As the IP packet moves through the route:

1) The ingress PE router adds two labels to the packet, defining two LSP’s – one
to the final PE router, and one to the next hop router
2) The next hop router receives the packet, pops Label 2 and adds a new Label 2
that refers to the next hop router – this repeats until the final PE router is reached
3) the final router is a PE router, which pops both Label 2 and then Label 1, and
sends the pure IP packet out it’s egress port and to the CE router
ingress
1.adds two labels

final PE router, and
one to the next hop router
256
Label Stack
When the last label is popped from a packet's label stack (resulting in the stack being
emptied), further processing of the packet is based on the packet's network layer
header.
The LSR which pops the last label off the
TCP UDP stack must therefore be able to identify the
TCP UDP
packet's network layer protocol. Since the
ICMP label itself says nothing of the protocol, the ICMP
IPv4 Layer 3 PE router must maintain a cross-reference IPv4 Layer 3
of the label number vs network layer
ARP
protocol. ARP
Ethernet Layer 2 Ethernet Layer 2
SDH Layer 1 SDH Layer 1
ingress
MPLS Network
257
Label Stack
When a router in an MPLS network receives an unlabeled
packet, it reverts to ordinary IP routing protocols.

TCP UDP TCP UDP

ICMP ICMP
IPv4 Layer 3 IPv4 Layer 3
ARP NO LABEL ARP

Ethernet Layer 2 Ethernet Layer 2
DATA
SDH Layer 1 SDH Layer 1
ingress
MPLS Network
258
Summary
LER -push an MPLS label onto an incoming packet and pop it off the
outgoing packet
label edge routers (LER) label edge routers (LER)
Labels are distributed

between LERs and
LSRs using the “Label Routers that perform routing based only on
Distribution Protocol” the label are called label switch routers
(LSR).
259

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End-to-End Traffic Engineering and

 1G, 2G, 2.5G, 3G,4G

 Spectrum efficiency & capacities (peak throughput)

 Cellular generations 1G, 2G, 2.5G, 3G and 4G

 Evolution of UMTS in different 3GPP releases

 Peak throughput of Rel 99 to R7

• Analogue Modulation ,1976+, though really the

Communication • Third Generation (3G)

 1st commercial network

 1st network launched in

 GSM, CDMA Standards 4G

 GPRS, EDGE & CDMA2000

 Mobile WiMax and LTE

 1st mobile WiMax and LTE

 What are the additional features of:

 GSM network architecture

 Combined GSM/GPRS/EDGE and UMTS architecture

 Evolution of UMTS network architecture

 LTE network architecture

 LTE compared with UMTS network architecture

 Wi-Fi network architecture

Air Interface Abis Interface A Interface

 The SIM stores permanent and temporary data about

 The mobile equipment has a unique International Mobile

GSM class 2 960 39 (8W)

GSM class 3 600 37 (5W)

GSM class 4 240 33 (2W)

GSM class 5 96 29 (0.8W)

DCS class 1 120 30 (1W)

DCS class 2 30 24 (.25W)

DCS class 3 480 36 (4W)

GSM class 1 – deleted under GSM Phase 2 Specification

 BTS contains: BTS

– Radio Transmitter/Receiver (TRX)

 Sitting of the BTS is crucial to the provision of acceptable radio coverage

– Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

 Functions of the MSC:

 A particular MSC can be assigned to act as a GMSC

 The operator may decide to assign more than one GMSC

– Grey-listed The terminal is under observation by the network

EIR HLR AUC PLMN

Note: Interfaces have been omitted for clarity purposes.

 The functions of UTRAN are:

 Responsible for the handover Node Node

 Transmission of user traffic between UTRAN(s) and/or fixed network

 Operations, Administration and Maintenance

GGSN GGSN GGSN SAE GW

SGSN SGSN SGSN MME/SGSN

Evolved UTRAN (E-UTRAN) Evolved Packet Core (EPC)

MME: Mobility Management Entity

RRM (bearer control, mobility control, scheduling, etc.)

Collection and evaluation of the measurements

Serving SAE PDN Serving Gateway Functions

Policy Enforcement (PCEF)

Per User based Packet Filtering (i.e.

• A major functionality provided by a PDN gateway is the QoS

Packet screening (firewall functionality)

Serving PDN SAE

• The HSS is already introduced by UMTS release 5. HSS Functions

 GSM network architecture

 Combined GSM/GPRS/EDGE and UMTS architecture

 Evolution of UMTS network architecture

 LTE network architecture