End-to-End Traffic Engineering and

Management

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 Telecoms Fundamentals and Current Trends

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 About Me..
Solution Architect and Multi-Vendor Product
Technical Trainer 5GNR, NB-IoT, VoLTE, LTE, WCDMA,
NFV.
Trainer of 2 of the best selling 5G courses on Udemy.
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 Day-1

 1G, 2G, 2.5G, 3G,4G

 Rel 99 to R7

 Spectrum efficiency & capacities (peak throughput)

4
 Evolution of Telecom Networks

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 Objectives
 This section will cover:

 Cellular generations 1G, 2G, 2.5G, 3G and 4G

 Evolution of UMTS in different 3GPP releases

 Peak throughput of Rel 99 to R7

 Introduction of R8 (LTE)

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 First Generation (1G)

• Analogue Modulation ,1976+, though really the

technology of the 1980’s
• Standards: NMT(Scandinavian Standard in 450MHz
and 900MHz bands), AMPS, TACS (UK), C-
450(German), JTACS (Japanese)
• Technology: FDMA Voice traffic only
• Basic voice services
• Circuit switched
Mobile • No Roaming
Communication
Evolution Second Generation (2G)

• Digital Modulation
• Standards: GSM,D-AMPS, PDC, IS-95
• Technology: FDMA/TDMA/CDMA
• Voice and some data, data rate transmission 9.6 kbps
to 14.4 kbps
• Circuit switched, encryption,
• Roaming possible
• Frequency Reuse,

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 • Two & half Generation (2.5G)
• Digital Modulation
• Standards – GPRS, EDGE, CDMA
1xEVDO/EVDV
• Technology – FDMA/TDMA/CDMA
• Voice and data, data rate transmission,
114kbps(GPRS), 384Kbps(EDGE),
Mobile Circuit/Packet switched

Communication • Third Generation (3G)

Evolution • Digital
• Standards – WCDMA
• Technology – CDMA,
• Voice, data and multimedia, higher data rate
transmissions up-to 2 Mbps
• Circuit/Packet switched , IP
• billing based on the utilization much smaller
call set up delay

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 First Generation – 1G

 1st commercial network

introduced by NTT in JAPAN
in 1979

 Analog Networks
4G
 Only Voice calls 3G
2.5G
 Large “Brick” Phones 2G
(approx. 1Kg) 1G

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 Second Generation – 2G

 1st network launched in

FINLAND in 1991

 Digital Networks

 Circuit Switched

 GSM, CDMA Standards 4G

3G
 Introduction of SMS, 2.5G
ringtones and basic internet 2G
access 1G
 Migration to 100-200gm
handheld devices

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 Second Generation – 2.5G

 Migration towards 3G

 Packet Switched

 GPRS, EDGE & CDMA2000

1x Standards
4G
 Introduction of WAP, MMS 3G
and internet services 2.5G
2G
 Speeds 1G
 GPRS (56-115Kbps)
 EDGE (230-384Kbps)
 CDMA1x (upto 307Kbps)

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 Third Generation – 3G

4G
3G
2.5G
2G
1G

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 3GPP Releases & Features

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 Fourth Generation – 4G

 Mobile WiMax and LTE

Standards

 1st mobile WiMax and LTE

networks launched in 2008
and 2010 respectively
4G
 Packet Switched for Voice 3G
and Data 2.5G
2G
 Speeds - upto 400Mbps 1G
 High bandwidth video
streaming

14
INDIA got it’s 1st 4G LTE network in April 2012 by Airtel in Kolkata
  What defines 1G and 2G technologies

 What are the additional features of:

 HSCSD
 GPRS
 EDGE
 R5 HSDPA
 R7 HSPA+

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16
 Network Architecture and Interfaces

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 Course Progress
 Evolution of Telecom Networks
 1G, 2G, 2.5G, 3G,4G
 Rel 99 to R7
 Spectrum efficiency & capacities (peak throughput)
 Network Architecture and Interfaces
 GSM, GPRS, EDGE, WCDMA, LTE & WiFi
 Typical BTS site configuration (Active & Passive)
 Radio Frequency Principles
 Radio wave propagation and models
 Multi-path, fading, interference
 Cellular Concepts
 Spectrum Ecosystem ( Different bands and uses)

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 Objectives
 This section will cover:

 GSM network architecture

 Combined GSM/GPRS/EDGE and UMTS architecture

 Evolution of UMTS network architecture

 LTE network architecture

 LTE compared with UMTS network architecture

 Wi-Fi network architecture

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 GSM Architecture Overview

Air Interface Abis Interface A Interface

(Um)

VLR D HLR
MS

B C H
BSS
TRX
MS AuC
MSC
BTS BSC

F
MS

EIR

PSTN
NSS
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 The Mobile Station (MS)
 The mobile station consists of:
– mobile equipment (ME)
– subscriber identity module (SIM)

 The SIM stores permanent and temporary data about

the mobile, the subscriber and the network, including:
– The International Mobile Subscribers Identity (IMSI)
– MS ISDN number of subscriber
– Authentication key (Ki) and algorithms for authentication check

 The mobile equipment has a unique International Mobile

Equipment Identity (IMEI), which is used by the EIR

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 Mobile Station Power Classes

Full Rate
MS Class
Power mW dBm

GSM class 2 960 39 (8W) 

GSM class 3 600 37 (5W) 

GSM class 4 240 33 (2W) 

GSM class 5 96 29 (0.8W) 

DCS class 1 120 30 (1W) 

DCS class 2 30 24 (.25W) 

DCS class 3 480 36 (4W) 

GSM class 1 – deleted under GSM Phase 2 Specification

Power (mW) = Nominal maximum mean power output (milliwatts)
Power (dBm) = Maximum power output in dBm (+watts)
Source: ETSI GSM 02.06 (Version 4.5.2)

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 The Base Station Sub-System (BSS)
 The BSS comprises:
– Base Station Controller (BSC)
– One or more Base Transceiver Stations (BTSs)
BSS
 The purpose of the BTS is to:
– provide radio access to the mobile stations
– manage the radio access aspects of the system

 BTS contains: BTS

– Radio Transmitter/Receiver (TRX)

– Signal processing and control equipment
– Antennas and feeder cables BSC
BTS
 The BSC:
– allocates a channel for the duration of a call
BTS
– maintains the call:
• monitors quality BTS
• controls the power transmitted by the BTS or MS
• generates a handover to another cell when required

 Sitting of the BTS is crucial to the provision of acceptable radio coverage

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 Network Switching System (NSS)
 The Network and Switching Sub-System (NSS)
sits between the BSS and other
telecommunications networks (e.g. PSTN). PSTN/ISDN
VLR
 The functions of the NSS are:
– to manage communications between subscribers MSC
GMSC
connected to different BSCs
– to locate and track mobiles in the GSM network for call-
SS7
routing purposes
Network
– to provide connectivity to other networks, in particular the
PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) AuC
 Key elements of the NSS: EIR
HLR
– Mobile Switching Centre (MSC) with:
• Visitor Location Register (VLR)
• Home Location Register (HLR) with:
• Authentication Centre (AuC)

– Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

– Gateway MSC (GMSC)

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 MSC and VLR

 Functions of the MSC:

– Switching calls, controlling calls and logging calls
– Interface with PSTN, ISDN
– Mobility management over the radio network and other networks VLR
– Radio Resource management - handovers between BSCs
– Billing Information
MSC
 Each MSC has a VLR
 VLR stores data temporarily for mobiles served by the MSC
 Information stored includes:
– IMSI
– MSISDN
– MSRN
– TMSI
– LAI
– Supplementary service parameters

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 Home Location Register (HLR)
 Stores details of all subscribers in the network , such as:
– Subscription information
– Location information: mobile station roaming number, VLR, MSC
– International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
– MS ISDN number
– Tele-service and bearer service subscription information
– Service restrictions
– Supplementary services
AuC
 Together with the AuC, the HLR checks the validity and service
profile of subscribers
HLR
 HLR Implementation
– One HLR in a network
– May be split regionally
– Stores details of several thousand subscribers
– Stand alone computer
– May be located anywhere on the SS7 network
– Combined with AuC
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 Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC)
 A Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC) is a device which routes
traffic entering a mobile network to the correct destination

 The GMSC accesses the network’s HLR to find the location of the
required mobile subscriber

 A particular MSC can be assigned to act as a GMSC

 The operator may decide to assign more than one GMSC

GMSC

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 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
 EIR is a database that stores a unique International Mobile
Equipment Identity (IMEI) number for each item of mobile
EIR
equipment
 The EIR controls access to the network by returning the
status of a mobile in response to an IMEI query
 Possible status levels are:
– White-listed The terminal is allowed to connect to the network.

– Grey-listed The terminal is under observation by the network

for possible problems.
– Black-listed The terminal has either been reported stolen, or is not a
type approved for a GSM network.
The terminal is not allowed to connect to the network.

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 Combined GSM/GPRS/Edge and UMTS Architecture
Base Station
Network Subsystem
Mobile Station Subsystem Other Networks

MSC/ GMSC
BSC VLR PSTN
BTS
ME
SIM

EIR HLR AUC PLMN

RNS
GGSN
SGSN
Node RNC Internet
ME B
USIM

UTRAN
+
SD

Note: Interfaces have been omitted for clarity purposes.

29
 Major Network Elements in UMTS

Node B Iu-cs
Radio Network Mobile
Gateway
Controller Switching PLMN,
UMTS SIM MSC
Centre
RNC MSC/VLR GMSC PSTN,
USIM Node B
IUb ISDN

CU
IUr Home Location
Register
Mobile HLR
Equipment

ME IUb Internet,
Node B X25
Radio Network
Serving GSN
Gateway Packet
Controller GSN
Network
RNC Iu-ps SGSN GGSN
Node B
UE UTRAN CN
UU IU

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 General UTRAN Architecture

Node B Iu-cs
Radio Network
Controller CN (MSC)
RNC
Node B
IUb
IUr
UE

IUb
Node B
Radio Network
Controller
CN (SGSN)
RNC
Node B Iu-ps
UTRAN
UU IU

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 UTRAN
 UTRAN is the UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network

 The functions of UTRAN are:

– Provision of Radio Coverage
– System access control
– Security and privacy
– Handover
– Radio resource management and control

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 Elements of UTRAN
 Radio Network Controller
– Owns and controls radio resources in its domain (BSC in GSM)
– Service Access point for all services that UTRAN provides for the CN
– Note: Service RNC (SRNC) and Drift RNC (DRNC) are subsets in case of soft
handovers

 Node B
– Acts as the radio base station (BTS in GSM)
– Converts the data flow between the Iub and Uu interfaces

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 Radio Network Subsystem (RNS)
 A Radio Network Subsystem consists of:
Iu
– A single RNC
– One or more Node B’s Iur
– Cells belonging to Node B’s RNC

Node B Node B

Cell Cell
Cell Cell Cell Cell

Uu

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 Radio Network Controller (RNC)
 Responsible for the use and
integrity of the radio resources Iu
within the RNS Iur
RNC

 Responsible for the handover Node Node

decisions that require signalling to B B
Cel Cel
the UE l l
Cel Cel Cel Cel
l l l l
 Provides a combining/splitting Uu
function to support macro-diversity
between different Node Bs

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 Node B
 Logical node responsible for radio
transmission / reception in one or Iu
more cells to/from the UE Iur
RNC
 Dual mode Node B can support FDD
and TDD mode Node Node
 Not necessarily a single site B B
Cel Cel
according to the standards l l
Cel Cel Cel Cel
– Most current implementations use a l l l l
single site Uu

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 Cell
 A cell is an area of radio coverage serviced by one or more carriers
Iu
Iur
RNC

Node Node
B B
Cel Cel
Cel l Cel Cel l Cel
l l l l
Uu

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 General Core Network Architecture
Other MSC
F
F
Iu-cs Mobile External Circuit
Gateway
Switching
UTRAN Centre
MSC Switched
MSC/VLR GMSC Networks
D
D
Gs Home Location
Register

HLR
Gr Gc
Gi
Iu-ps Serving GSN
Gateway External Packet
GSN
UTRAN Switched
SGSN G GGSN
n Networks
Gn CN
IU Other SGSN

38
 Functions of the Core Network
 Switching

 Service Provision

 Transmission of user traffic between UTRAN(s) and/or fixed network

 Mobility Management

 Operations, Administration and Maintenance

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 Evolution of Network Architecture
Direct tunnel LTE
HSPA R6 HSPA R7 HSPA R7 LTE R8

GGSN GGSN GGSN SAE GW

SGSN SGSN SGSN MME/SGSN

RNC RNC

Node B Evolved
Node B
(NB) Node B + RNC Node B
(NB)
Functionality (eNB)

40
 LTE/SAE Network Elements

Evolved UTRAN (E-UTRAN) Evolved Packet Core (EPC)

HSS

MME: Mobility Management Entity

S6a
PCRF:Policy & Charging Rule Function
MME S10 S7
X2
Evolved Rx+
Node B S1-MME PCRF
LTE-UE (eNB)
S11
S1-U S5/S8 SGi
cell PDN
LTE-Uu Serving PDN
Gateway Gateway

SAE
Gateway

41
 Evolved Node B (eNB)
– RNC is not a part of E-UTRAN
• Completely removed from the architecture
• eNB is the only one entity in E-UTRAN
– eNB main functions:
RNC
• Serving cell (or several cells)
• Provisioning of radio interface to UEs (eUu)
eNB
• Physical layer (PHY) and Radio Resource Management (RRM)
• Exchange of crucial cell-specific data to other base stations (eNBs) X2

RRM (bearer control, mobility control, scheduling, etc.)

Collection and evaluation of the measurements

User Plane data forwarding to SAE-GW eNB
MME selection when no info provided from UE
ROHC (Robust Header Compression)
Ciphering and integrity protection for the air interface
Transmission of messages coming from MME
(i.e. broadcast, paging, NAS)
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 Mobility Management Entity (MME)
Evolved HSS
S1-MME MME MME Functions
Node B
S6a
(eNB) Control plane NE in EPC
S11
S1-U Non-Access-Stratum (NAS)
Serving Security (Authentication,
Gateway integrity Protection)

• It is a pure signaling entity inside the EPC. Idle State Mobility Handling
• SAE uses tracking areas to track the position of idle UEs. The basic Tracking Area updates
principle is identical to location or routing areas from 2G/3G.
Subscriber attach/detach
• MME handles attaches and detaches to the SAE system, as well as
tracking area updates Signalling coordination for
SAE Bearer Setup/Release
• Therefore it possesses an interface towards the HSS (home
subscriber server) which stores the subscription relevant Radio Security Control
information and the currently assigned MME in its permanent data
Trigger and distribution of
base.
Paging Messages to eNB
• A second functionality of the MME is the signaling coordination to
Roaming Control (S6a interface
setup transport bearers (SAE bearers) through the EPC for a UE. to HSS)
• MMEs can be interconnected via the S10 interface Inter-CN Node Signaling
(S10 interface), allows efficient
inter-MME tracking area updates
and attaches

43
 Serving SAE Gateway
Evolved
S1-MME MME
Node B
S6a
(eNB)
S11
S1-U S5/S8

Serving SAE PDN Serving Gateway Functions

Gateway Gateway
Local mobility anchor point:
Switching the user plane path to a
• The serving gateway is a network element that manages the user new eNB in case of Handover
data path (SAE bearers) within EPC.
• It therefore connects via the S1-U interface towards eNB and Mobility anchoring for inter-3GPP
mobility. This is sometimes referred
receives uplink packet data from here and transmits downlink to as the 3GPP Anchor function
packet data on it.
• When UE moves across eNB, the serving gateway acts as packet Idle Mode Packet Buffering and
notification to MME
data anchoring function within EPC.
• It relays the packet data within EPC via the S5/S8 interface to or Packet Routing/Forwarding
from the PDN gateway. between eNB, PDN GW and SGSN
• A serving gateway is controlled by one or more MMEs via S11 Lawful Interception support
interface.

44
 Packet Data Network (PDN) SAE Gateway
S7 Rx+
MME PCRF
S6a
S11 PDN Gateway Functions
S5/S8 SGi
PDN Mobility anchor for mobility between
3GPP access systems and non-3GPP
Serving PDN SAE
access systems. This is sometimes
Gateway Gateway referred to as the SAE Anchor function

Policy Enforcement (PCEF)

Per User based Packet Filtering (i.e.

• The PDN gateway provides the connection between EPC and a deep packet inspection)
number of external data networks.
• Thus it is comparable to GGSN in 2G/3G networks. Charging & Lawful Interception support

• A major functionality provided by a PDN gateway is the QoS

IP Address Allocation for UE
coordination between the external PDN and EPC.
• Therefore the PDN gateway can be connected via S7 to a PCRF Packet Routing/Forwarding between
(Policy and Charging Rule Function). Serving GW and external Data Network

Packet screening (firewall functionality)

45
 Policy and Charging Rule Function (PCRF)
S7 Rx+
MME PCRF
S6a
S11
S5/S8 SGi
PDN

Serving PDN SAE

Gateway Gateway

• The PCRF major functionality is the Quality of Service (QoS) PCRF: Policy & Charging Rule Function
coordination between the external PDN and EPC.
• Therefore the PCRF is connected via Rx+ interface to the QoS policy negotiation with PDN
external Data network (PDN)
• This function can be used to check and modify the QoS Charging Policy: determines how
associated with a SAE bearer setup from SAE or to request the packets should be accounted
setup of a SAE bearer from the PDN.
• This QoS management resembles the policy and charging
control framework introduced for IMS with UMTS release 6.

46
 Home Subscriber Server (HSS)
HSS

MME
S6a

• The HSS is already introduced by UMTS release 5. HSS Functions

• With LTE/SAE the HSS will get additionally data per Permanent and central subscriber
subscriber for SAE mobility and service handling. database
• Some changes in the database as well as in the HSS
Stores mobility and service data for
protocol (DIAMETER) will be necessary to enable HSS for
every subscriber
LTE/SAE.
• The HSS can be accessed by the MME via S6a interface. Contains the Authentication Center
(AuC) functionality.

47
 LTE Radio Interface and the X2 Interface
LTE-Uu
(E)-RRC ..
User
UserPDUs
PDUs User
UserPDUs
PDUs • Air interface of EUTRAN
PDCP (ROHC = RFC 3095) • Based on OFDMA in downlink and SC-FDMA in uplink
RLC TS 36.300 • FDD and TDD duplex methods
MAC
• Scalable bandwidth 1.4MHz to currently 20 MHz
eNB • Data rates up to 100 Mbps in DL
LTE-L1 (FDD/TDD-OFDMA/SC-FDMA)
• MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) is a major
component although optional.
LTE-Uu

X2-CP X2-UP
(Control Plane) (User Plane) X2
User
User PDUs
PDUs
• Inter eNB interface
• Handover coordination without involving the EPC
TS 36.423 X2-AP GTP-U
X2 • X2AP: special signaling protocol
SCTP UDP
TS 36.422
TS 36.424 • During HO, Source eNB can use the X2 interface to
IP IP forward downlink packets still buffered or arriving from
the serving gateway to the target eNB.
TS 36.421 L1/L2 L1/L2 TS 36.421
• This will avoid loss of a huge amount of packets during
inter-eNB handover.

TS 36.420
[currently also in TS 36.300 §20]

eNB

48
 LTE vs UMTS
 Functional changes compared to the UMTS architecture

49
 Wi-Fi Network Architecture
 Functional changes compared to the current UMTS architecture

50
  This section will cover:

 GSM network architecture

 Combined GSM/GPRS/EDGE and UMTS architecture

 Evolution of UMTS network architecture

 LTE network architecture

 LTE compared with UMTS network architecture

 Wi-Fi network Architecture

51
 Introduction to 5G

52
 Summary of Key 5G Requirements in 3GPP 38.913

5G target in 3GPP LTE in practise

Data rates DL 20 Gbps, UL 10 Gbps DL 1 Gbps, UL 0.5 Gbps
Peak spectral efficiency DL 30 bps/Hz, UL 15 bps DL 30 bps/Hz, UL 15 bps
Latency User 1 ms, control 10 ms User 10 ms, control 50 ms
Reliability 10-5 = 99.999% Not defined
Network virtualization New open interfaces Not flexible
Connection density 1M/km2 Not defined
Mobility 500 km/h 350 km/h
Coverage 164 dB 164 dB (NB-IoT)

53
 IMT-2020 Use Cases

54
 5G-NR
(Air Interface)

55
 Key Technology Components of 5G Air
Interface
#1 New spectrum #2 massive MIMO & Beamforming #4 Multi-connectivity and
options aggregation
Spectrum
90 GHz 5G
3 mm LTE
5G
30 GHz LTE
1 cm 5G
10 GHz
#3 Flexible Air Interface Design #5 Distributed flexible architecture
3 GHz time
Dt

10 cm User #3
Df
• Lean design
• Flexible size,
frequency

User #4 User #5

User #2

300 MHz User #2

control, TDD,
User #1
User #1

User #3 User #5
1m
One tile corresponds to the smallest user allocation
bandwidth etc Gateway

56
 Comparison 5G vs LTE

LTE 5G Benefit

Common Reference Signals - Better dMIMO / CoMP

Flexible reference signals - Lower consumption
(CRS)

Optimized CSI feedback with - Better MIMO / CoMP

Codebook based feedback - Low overhead
minimum overhead

Slow X2 inter-cell Fast over-the-air inter-cell - Faster coordination

coordination coordination

Link level performance is limited by Shannon. Multi-antenna and multi-cell

performance can be improved by clever system design

57
 5G Performance Aspects
mmWave and cmWave propagation characteristics

Higher bands bring propagation challenges in 5G

Consistency across frequency
Higher losses Diffraction and diffuse scattering
and space
• Atmospheric lossess (Free space loss) • Diffraction and reflection loss increases with • Huge differences in
• Additional losses to be considered (rain, frequency propagation and fading
vegetation) • Diffuse scattering will be more pronounced at characteristics owing to
• Penetration loss (material dependent) tends higher frequencies width of any single carrier
to increase with frequency (100 MHz)
• Body/head blockage • MU-MIMO/massive MIMO
needs to capture spatial
correlation of channel

• Larger antenna arrays Massive MIMO New channel models are developed for 5G needs:
• RF based beamforming • 3GPP Urban Micro (UMi), Urban Macro (Uma),
• Directional antennas on UE side Indoor Hotspot (InH)
• Dedicated indoor installations • ITU-R M.2135

58
 Agenda
• Important Features to compliment 5G
• NFV and SDN
• Mobile Edge Computing
• Network Slicing
• Massive MIMO Concept
• Multiple access in MIMO
• Cloud/Open RAN
• Vendor comparison and current deployment/Trail Status of the above
features

59
 Network Function Virtualization
(NFV) and
Software Defined Networking
(SDN)

60
 Network Functions Virtualization – Definition
 Network Functions Virtualisation aims to transform the way that network operators architect
networks by evolving standard IT virtualisation technology to consolidate many network
equipment types onto industry standard high volume servers, switches and storage, which
could be located in Datacentres, Network Nodes and in the end user premises.
– It involves the implementation of network functions in software that can run on a range of industry standard
server hardware, and that can be moved to, or instantiated in, various locations in the network as required,
without the need for installation of new equipment.

61
 Mobile Edge Computing
(MEC)

62
 Mobile Edge Computing and reference 5g
scenario

63
 What is mobile edge computing

• Mobile-edge Computing (MEC) offers application developers and content providers

cloud-computing capabilities and an IT service environment at the edge of the mobile
network.

• This environment is characterized by ultra-low latency and high bandwidth as well as

real time access to radio network information that can be leveraged by applications.

• MEC provides a new ecosystem an value chain.

• Operators can open their Radio Access Network (RAN) edge to authorized third-
parties, allowing them to flexibly and rapidly deploy innovative applications and
services towards mobile subscribers, enterprises and vertical segments

64
 MEC Use Cases

• Consumer-oriented services: these are innovative services that

generally benefit directly the end-user, i.e. the user using the UE.
• This can include:
• gaming;
• remote desktop applications;
• augmented and assisted reality;
• cognitive assistance;
• etc.

65
 MEC Use Cases

• Operator and third party services: these are innovative services that
take advantage of computing and storage facilities close to the edge
of the operator's network.
• These services are usually not directly benefiting the end-user, but
can be operated in conjunction with third-party service companies:
• active device location tracking;
• big data;
• security, safety;
• enterprise services;
• etc.

66
 MEC Use Cases

• Network performance and QoE improvements: these services are

generally aimed at improving performance of the network, either via
application-specific or generic improvements.
• The user experience is generally improved, but these are not new
services provided to the end-user:
• content/DNS caching;
• performance optimization;
• video optimization;
• etc.

67
 MEC Platform API

68
 Introduction to Cloud RAN

69
 Cloud RANArchitecture
• A virtual BBU pool connected to various RRHs.
• BBU pool consists of general purpose processors to perform Baseband processing .
• C-RAN mobile LTE network.

70
 Cloud RANArchitecture
• The front haul part spans from the RRHs sites to the BBU pool.
• The backhaul connects to the BBU pool with the mobile core network .
• RRHs are co-located with antennas, connected to the high performance processors in the BBU pool.

71
 Network Slicing

72
 Network SlicingAn Introduction
• Network slicing is a key feature for the next generation network.

• It is about transforming the network/system from a static "one size fits all" paradigm, to a new
paradigm where logical networks/partitions are created, with appropriate isolation, resources
and optimized topology to serve a particular purpose or service category (e.g. use case/traffic
category, or for internal reasons) or even individual customers (logical system created "on
demand").

• It can be enriched by use of NFV and SDN.

• The network slicing concept consists of 3 layers:

• Service Instance Layer,

• Network Slice Instance Layer, and

• Resource layer where each layer requires management functions

73
 Management of 5G networks and network slicing
• 5G system is expected to be able to provide optimized support for a variety of different
communication services, different traffic loads, and different end user communities.

• The communication services using network slicing may include:

• 5G seamless eMBB service with FMC

• As one of the key technologies to enable network slicing, fixed mobile convergence
(FMC) which includes wireless-to-the-everything (WTTx) and fibre-to-the-everything
(FTTx), is expected to provide native support for network slicing.
• For optimization and resource efficiency, the 5G system will select the most appropriate
3GPP or non-3GPP access technology for a communication service, potentially allowing
multiple access technologies to be used simultaneously for one or more services active
on a UE.

74
 Management of 5G networks and network slicing
• Massive IOT Connections

• As one of the key technologies to enable network slicing, fixed mobile convergence (FMC)
which includes wireless-to-the-everything (WTTx) and fibre-to-the-everything (FTTx), is
expected to provide native support for network slicing.
• For optimization and resource efficiency, the 5G system will select the most appropriate
3GPP or non-3GPP access technology for a communication service, potentially allowing
multiple access technologies to be used simultaneously for one or more services active on a
UE

• V2X services

• The 5G system aims to enhance its capability to meet KPIs that emerging V2X applications
require.
• For these advanced applications, the requirements, such as data rate, reliability, latency,
communication range and speed, are made more stringent

75
 Types of Communication Services
• Communication services offered by Communication Service Providers (CSPs) to Communication
Service Customers (CSCs) are of various categories, among which:
• Business to consumer (B2C) services, e.g. mobile web browsing, 5G voice, Rich
Communication Services, etc.
• Business to business (B2B) services, e.g. Internet access, LAN interconnection, etc.

• Business to household (B2H) services, e.g. Internet access, MBMS, VOIP, VPN, etc.

• Business to business to everything (B2B2X) services: e.g. services offered to other CSPs (e.g.
international roaming, RAN sharing, etc.) offering themselves communication services to
their own customers.
• B2B2X service type includes B2B2 applied recursively, i.e. B2B2B, B2B2B2B, etc.

76
End to End Traffic
Engineering
Concept of Traffic
Telecommunication Traffic
Traffic Intensity
Traffic Intensity
Traffic Intensity
Traffic Intensity
Traffic Intensity – Def 1
Traffic Intensity – Def 2
Traffic Intensity – Def 3
Traffic Intensity – Def 4
Kinds of Traffic
Kinds of Traffic
Quality of service
4G - LTE
4G Quality of Services

 The VoIP service has specific bearer combination requirements.

– QCI1 dedicated bearer for the speech.
– QCI5 dedicated bearer for SIP signaling to the IMS.
– Default non-GBR bearer (QCI6-9) for data transfer (always-on).

 VoLTE Bearer Combination

EPS bearers for conversational voice

 Admission Control
– Under high GBR load conditions, new GBR bearer can be admitted if following conditions are
fulfilled:
• new bearer has higher ARP priority than some of the already admitted bearers
• new bearer has preemption capability set to ‘yes’
• some of the ongoing GBR bearers has preemption vulnerability

– When all GBR QCIs are used, bearers with QCI2,3 or 4 can be preempted to provide resources for
VoIP call
• Impact on Radio resource
Management
Congestion Control

 Congested state  When a cell is congested, the eNodeB

– A cell is regarded as congested in the downlink if
releases the GBR service that meets the
the downlink QoS satisfaction rate of services with
one or more QCIs is less than the relevant
following conditions and ranks the highest
congestion threshold and the downlink system priority:
resource usage is high. – The number of RBs used by this service is not 0.
– The value of the ARP IE "Pre-emption Vulnerability"
 Normal state
of the service is "pre-emptable".
– The cell is regarded as normal if the QoS
satisfaction rates of services with QCIs 1 are all
greater than the corresponding Qci1 Congestion
Thereshold.
Quality of service
5G NR
5G QoS
characteristics
• 1 Resource Type (GBR,
Delay critical GBR or Non-
GBR);
• 2 Priority Level;
• 3 Packet Delay Budget;
• 4 Packet Error Rate;
• 5 Averaging window
(for GBR and Delay-critical
GBR resource type only);
• 6 Maximum Data Burst
Volume (for Delay-critical
GBR resource type only).
Traffic classification and marking
Type Diffserv DSCP bin
Synchronization Proprietary 54 110110
Radio Network Control LU 51 110011
Transport Network Control CS6 48 110000
Signaling CS5 40 101000
O&M High Priority (SNMP Traps) CS4 32 100000
Voice (Expedited Forwarding) EF 46 101110
AF41 34 100010
Video/Gaming AF42 36 100100
AF43 38 100110

Non-GBR Data Priority AF31 26 011010

AF32 28 011100
O&M Undifferentiated CS2 16 010000
O&M low Priority (FTP/SFTP) CS1 8 001000
AF21 18 010010
Non-GBR Data (HSPA on lub/lur only) AF22 20 010100
AF23 22 010110

AF11 10 001010
Non-GBR Data (all PS traffic except HSPA on lub/lur) AF12 12 001100
AF13 14 001110

Best Effort BE 0, all other

 End to end QoS
  Mobile Traffic QoS

Strict priority scheduling with bandwidth limit (Inelastic Traffic) Reserved bandwidth per queue (Elastic traffic)
6
Class of 4 3
 
Service Application / Service Examples PHB DSCP P-bit queues
queues queues
(Rec)
Radio Synchronization Network Frequency or phase synch (GSM, WCDMA, LTE, CES termination devices, etc LU 54
Network 1 7 Q1 Q1
Control Radio Network control WCDMA (FACH1, 2, RACH, PCH, MBMS, FACH), GSM 8OML, RSL, STN_L2TP_CP), etc LU 51
Transport network control IP Routing (BGP, OSPF, IS-IS), NTP ToD, L2 resilience, ICMP, etc.. CS6 48

Signaling 2 Signaling Radio netwotk control (SRB/RRC, NBAP, RNSAP, RANAP, S1AP/X2AP, CDMA Abis signaling & RAN Datagram, A11, A12, A13, CS5 40 6 Q2
HRPD Signaling, DOS Messaging, etc
O&M high priority O&M configuration management CS4 32

Voice Voice (QCI1=PS conversational/speech, CS conversational/speech on A, Abis, Iu, Iub, Iur, CDMA/1xRTT Voice+Data, Voice abd EF 46
Data Signaling, CDMA/EVDO Delay Sensitive-1)
Real Time Gaming (QCI3= PS conversational/unknown, CDMA/EVDO Delay Sensitive-2: Second priority delay sensitive user AF41 34
traffic channels)
Q1
Live Streaming (QCI2= PS conversational/unknown), GBR Traffic (CDMA/EVDO Delay Sensitive-3: Third Priority delay sensitive
user traffic over forward traffic channels, CDMA/EVDO User Rate Sensitive-1: Rate sensitive user traffic over forward traffic AF42 36 Q2
channels)
Expedited
Forwarding 3 5 Q3
Video / Gaming / GBR

AF43 38
Video Streaming (QCI4= PS conversational/unknown), GBR Traffic (CDMA/EVDO Delay Sensitive-3: Low Priority delay sensitive
user traffic over forward traffic channels, CDMA/EVDO User Rate Sensitive-2: Low Priority delay sensitive user traffic over
forward traffic channels), CDMA/EVDO RTC High Capacity: Rate sensitive and best effort user traffic over reverse link traffic
channels. (Separation of the best effort and GBR uplink traffic is not possible)
PS traffic for priority users only (QCI6= Interactive/THP1) AF31 26
Non-GBR Data priority Undifferentiated PS traffic (Interactive/THP2+THP3 and Background ("THP4") in WCDMA/DCH on Iub/Iur, all PS traffic in GSM AF32 28
on Abis and Gb)
Assured
Forwarding 3 4 O&M Undifferentiated O&M high and low priority if separation is not possible (include all WCDMA O&M traffic CS2 16 4 Q4

O&M low priority (SIU) O&M Bulk, CUDB replication, charging low priority (FTP), CDMA/EVDO Low Priority OAM: Secure remote login (SSH), CS1 8
secure software download and log upload (SFTP), and data collection upload Q3 Q2
PS traffic (Interactive/THP2 in WCDMA/HSPA on Iub/Iur) or CDMA/EVDO user Best Effort-1: Inter-User Best Effort 1 user traffic AF21 18
over forward traffic channels
Assured Non-GBR Data (HSPA on PS traffic (Interactive/THP3 in WCDMA/HSPA on Iub/Iur) or CDMA/EVDO user Best Effort-6: Inter-User Best Effort 6 user traffic
Forwarding 2 5 Iub/Iur OR CDMA/EVDO BE) over forward traffic channels
AF22 20 3 Q5
PS traffic (Background ("THP4" in WCDMA/HSPA on Iub/Iur) or CDMA/EVDO user Best Effort-5: Inter-User Best Effort 5 user AF23 22
traffic over forward traffic channels
PS traffic (QCI7 = Interactive/THP2) AF11 10
Assured Non-GBR Data (all PS traffic
Forwarding 1 6 except HSPA on Iub/Iur ) PS traffic (QCI8 = Interactive/THP3)
AF12 12 2 Q6 Q4 Q3
PS traffic (QCI9 = Background ("THP4") AF13 14

Best Effort 7 Other types of traffic IMS self provisioning, service network access, etc. BE/CS0 0 1 Additional queue(s), Up
to eight queues in total
Call and Packet Levels in networks
Concept of blocking
Concept of blocking
Basic Notion and Parameters
QoS
QoS
Reason for Network Delay
Reason for Network Delay
Kinds of Traffic at the packet level
4G Traffic Engineering
Calculation
OFDMA Parameters
 Scalable Bandwidth: LTE has scalable bandwidth option of 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15 and 20 MHz. Higher BW
means higher peak data rate, bigger capacity and low physical layer overheads.

 Sub carrier spacing (Δf = 15 KHz) for both OFDMA and SC-FDMA and the symbol time Tsymbol = 1/ Δf =
66.7 µs

 The number of Subcarrier Nc: Nc x Δf = BW. LTE use 10% channel BW as guard band (to avoid out
band emissions).
– If BW = 20MHz -> Transmission BW = 20-2 = 18 MHz therefore No of sub carriers Nc = 18MHz/15KHz = 1200
subcarriers.

 FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) size: it has to be a power of 2 to speed up the fft operations.
– Since the BW = 20 MHz has 1200 sub-carriers which is not a power of 2 so the number having next power of 2 is
2048 which are the Nfft.
– The rest 2048-1200 = 848 are padded with zeros.

 Sampling frequency Fs:

– Fs = No. Of FFT symbol x Δf. For BW 20 MHz, Fs = 2048 x 15KHz = 30.72 MHz. Which is 3.84*8 (sampling rate is a
multiple of chip rate 3.84 of UMTS and HSPA to keep the same clock timings between the two technologies).
OFDMA Parameters summary
OFDMA sub-carrier Types

Direct current SC have

Sub-Carrier reference
no info but used by UE
used to make
to locate the center of
measurements.
OFDM frequency band

 Different types of sub-carriers used in LTE are:

– Data sub-carrier
– Pilot sub-carrier
– DC sub-carrier
– Guard sub-carrier
Radio Interface Overview

 Physical Layer Structure

– Frame Structure for FDD & TDD variants
– Frequency Domain Organization
– Normal  & Extended Cyclic Prefix
– Resource Block
– Resource Grid Definition-UL/DL

Modulation Schemes in LTE

– QPSK
– 16 QAM
– 64 QAM
LTE FDD Frame Structure
LTE TDD Frame Structure

DL/UL
2/6
4/4
6/2
6/3
7/2
8/1
3/5
LTE Resource Block & Resource Grid for UL & DL

Capacity allocation is based on

Resource Blocks
Resource Grid Definition-Ul/DL

 Resource Element (RE)

– One element in the time/frequency resource grid.
• One subcarrier in one OFDM/LFDM symbol for DL/UL. Often
used for Control channel resource assignment.

 Resource Block (RB)

– Minimum scheduling size for DL/UL data channels
– Physical Resource Block (PRB) [180 kHz x 0.5 ms]
– Virtual Resource Block (VRB) [180 kHz x 0.5 ms in virtual
frequency domain]

 Resource Block Group (RBG)

– Group of Resource Blocks
• Size of RBG depends on the system bandwidth in the cell
4G Maximum Throughput Calculation

 Explain basics using mathematical calculation and later share the excel tool prepared.
 http://anisimoff.org/eng/lte_throughput_calculator.html
5G Traffic Engineering
Calculation
NR Operating
Bands in FR1 and FR2
5G Resource Grid
Frame Structure
• Frame: 10 ms
• Subframe: Reference period of 1 ms
• Slot (slot based scheduling)
• 14 OFDM symbols
• One possible scheduling unit
• Slot aggregation allowed
• Slot length scales with the subcarrier spacing
• 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 1 𝑚𝑠/2𝜇
• Mini-Slot (non-slot based scheduling)
• 7, 4 or 2 OFDM symbols
• Minimum scheduling unit
Resource Grid
• Resource elements are grouped into Physical Resource Blocks (PRB)
• Each PRB consists of 12 Subcarriers
Resource Grid
• For each numerology and carrier, a resource grid of 𝑁𝑅𝐵 𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝜇

𝑁𝑠𝑐 𝑅𝐵 subcarriers and 𝑁𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒,𝜇 OFDM symbols is

defined

• The resource grids for all subcarrier spacing are overlapped

 Sub carrier spacing 38.300
SCS PRB Frame Subfram Slots Slots Slot Symbols Symbol Support Support
e per
μ Δ = 2μ x bandwi duratio per duratio per duratio ed ed
15 dth n duratio frame subfram n slot n for data for sync
n e

71.43
0 15 kHz 180 kHz 10 ms 1 ms 10 1 1 ms 14 Yes Yes
μs

35.71
1 30 kHz 360 kHz 10 ms 1 ms 20 2 500 μs 14 μs Yes Yes

17.86
2 60 kHz 720 kHz 10 ms 1 ms 40 4 250 μs 14 Yes No
μs

1.44
3 120 kHz 10 ms 1 ms 80 8 125 μs 14 8.93 μs Yes Yes
MHz

2.88
4 240 kHz 10 ms 1 ms 160 16 62.5 μs 14 4.46 μs No Yes
MHz
5G throughput calculation

• https://5g-tools.com/5g-nr-throughput-calculator/
Modelling of Overflow
Traffic System
Microwave Link Planning
Session 1
Introduction
Course Schedule
 The day will consist of six, 45 minute sessions.
 A module may take more than one session to
complete.
 Self-assessment questions and practical examples
are included to reinforce understanding.
 Aims of Course
 To enable you to plan the radio elements of a point to point microwave link against a
performance requirement and to be able to predict the performance of the link that
you have planned.
 This will involve gaining an understanding of

 Antennas  Interference
 Link Budgets  Radio Propagation
 Noise  Modulation Methods
 Fading  Performance Prediction
 Diversity Techniques Methods.
 Why Microwave
Microwave radio links provide high speed (2 Mbps+) communication between two
points.
They are known to be:

 fast to implement
 convenient
 economic

when compared with wire-based alternatives.

 What does “Microwave” mean
Microwave refers to a section of the RF spectrum lying between 3 and 30 GHz. It is also
referred to as “Super High Frequency” (SHF).

300 kHz 30 MHz 3 GHz 300 GHz

LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF mm

30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz

The Microwave Band

Note that frequencies up to 40 GHz are being used for “microwave” links
although the definition suggests that this frequency is in the “millimetric”
band.
System Block Diagram
Antenna

Feeder

Transceiver

The equipment layout is essentially very simple. The job of the link planner is
to specify and configure the equipment.
Answers, Please!
What power
level will we
How big must receive?
the antenna
be?
At what data How high must
rate must we What will the
loss of the the antenna
send? be?
feeder be?

What should
What the transmit
frequency will power be?
we use?

How good will the

performance be?
 Percentage Outage
 Unlike an optical fibre or coaxial cable system, the received power level of a
microwave system will vary significantly with time.
 This is due to atmospheric effects and “hydrometeors” such as rain and snow.
 This will inevitably lead to the system suffering an outage for a small percentage of the
time.
 The link planner must be able to predict the outage periods as a percentage on a
particular system.
 Quantitative Analysis
 The link planner must be able to determine numerical parameters to define the
microwave system.
 The course will involve methodologies, procedures and techniques for arriving at the
correct numerical solutions.
 However, all solutions should fit in with the expectations of an intuitive engineer.
 Intuitive Expectations
 If the antenna is bigger, the receive power will increase.
 If the link is longer the receive power will decrease.
 We will need a higher power to transmit a higher data rate.
 The higher the power received, the lower the percentage outage.
 The longer the feeder, the lower the receive power.
 Next Steps
 All the parameters affect each other in an interactive way.
 The next sections will deal with particular parameters whilst keeping one eye on the
final goal
 In the next section we shall concentrate on the antenna and methods of predicting the
receive signal power.
 PDH Technology

• PDH technology used to carry data over transport medium such as

microwave radio system.

• PDH networks run in a state where different parts of the network are nearly,
but not quite perfectly, synchronized. The rate is allowed to vary by ±50
ppm of 2.048 Mbit/s.

• In PDH multiplexing is done in groups of four data streams.

• PDH bit rates

– E1 - 2.048 Mbit/Sec
– E2 - 8.448 Mbit/Sec
– E3 - 34.368 Mbit/Sec
– E4 - 139.264 Mbit/Sec

161
 Higher SDH bit rates
• Higher transmission rate than the 155 Mbps (STM-1) is achieved by using
a byte interleaved multiplexing scheme.

STM-1: 155.520 Mbit/s

STM-4: 622.080 Mbit/s
STM-16: 2.488.320 Mbit/s
STM-64: 9.953.280 Mbit/s

STM-1 #1 11111 STM-4

STM-1 #2 22222 12341234123412 . . . .

STM-1 #3 33333

44444
STM-1 #4

162
 Microwave Link Traffic
• Microwave Link connect two cellular network sites.

• It carry Voice, Video and Data.

• Commonly each BTS site has one E1 of transmission capacity.

• PDH or SDH are the two standards for traffic capacity over Microwave Link
in terms of
– 2 x 2 (2E1),
– 4 x 2 (4E1),
– 8 x 2 (8E1),
– 16x 2 (16E1),
– STM1 etc.

163
 Channel Separation in PCM Planning
• PCM planning is basically Capacity, Equipment & Network Topology
planning.

• Capacity of a microwave link depends on the number of E1 (2Mbps) data

carried from one site to another.

All capacity uses QPSK except STM-1 requires 28 MHz (128QAM).

164
 Minimum Transmit Power

165
 Receiver Power Level: Example
• Receiver Threshold:

• Maximum Receive power level:

166
 MPLS-Multi-Protocol Label Switching
• Layer 3 routing

• Layer 2 switching

+ =
Router ATM switch MPLS Router

167
 MPLS Basic Concepts

LER
MPLS domain

IP LER
Non-MPLS LSR LSR
device LER

LSP
LSR
MPLS Non-MPLS
device
LER

168
 MPLS Label Operations
• Label operations include push, swap and pop.

Push Swap

IP LER
L2 IP

L1 IP

L3 IP IP

LER

Swap Pop

169
 Packet Microwave

ATM E1 ATM E1
RNC
BTS
E1 E1
1
P M M P
W P P W
E L L E SDH
SDH
3 S S 3
Tunnel
Router Eth. Eth. Router
OptiX RTN 900 OptiX RTN
900
PW label MPLS label
Eth. packet TDM frame ATM Cell

170
 Approximately Hop Distances
• In case of city access network the antenna size can be mostly 0.3m and
0.6m for all PDH links.

• In case of SDH links in the access network, the antenna size can be 0.6m
and 1.2m depending on the requirement.

171
Session 2
Antennas and The Link Budget
 The Microwave Antenna
 Parabolic antennas are a form of “aperture”
antenna.
 The antenna faces an incoming
electromagnetic wave that has a power
density Pd.
 The antenna converts this to a received power
Pr.
 The Microwave Antenna
 The “aperture” can be thought of as a hole E
through which energy passes.
 This energy is delivered to the antenna
Pd
output..
H

Pr  Pd Ae
Pr
 The Microwave Antenna
 The “effective aperture” is linked to the
physical aperture.
 For an antenna presenting a circular cross
section of diameter D when viewed from the
D
front

2
D
Ae  0.6 
4
 The Isotropic Antenna
 A hypothetical antenna that distributes its
transmitted power equally in all directions.
 As the surface area of a sphere radius r is r
the power
2 density produced at a distance r
4by
is given r

Pt
Pd 
4r 2
 Antenna Gain
 A practical microwave antenna will produce a
higher power density by concentrating the
energy into a narrow beam. r
 For an antenna of gain Gt, the power density
produced is, by definition

Pt Gt
Pd 
4r 2
Calculating the received power
Pt Gt
Pd  Pr  Pd Ae
4r 2

Pt Gt
Pr  A
2 e
4r

 This equation allows us to calculate the

received power given the other parameters.
Calculating the received
 Example.
power
Gt Ae
r
Pt
Pr

Gt  500
Ae  2 m 2
r  20000 m
Pt  0.5 watts
0.5  500  2 8
Pr   9. 95  10 watts
4 (20000) 2
 Antenna Characteristics
 Radiation pattern, gain, and antenna properties in general have the
same same characteristics whether the antenna is being used as a
transmitter or receiver.
 Considering the antenna as a receiver. The gain equals its effective
aperture as a multiple of the effective aperture of an isotropic antenna.
 Aperture of isotropic antenna
2 4
 G  Ae 2
4 
2
Ae  G
4
 4 
G  10 log10  Ae 2  dBi
  
 Calculating Received Power
 Substituting Effective Aperture in terms of Gain.

Pt Gt Pt Gt Gr 2
Pr  A 
4r 2 e
4r 2 4
2
  
 Pt Gt Gr  
 4r 

Pr  Pt  Gt  Gr  20 log10 (4 )  20 log10 (r )  20 log10 ( )

 Calculating Received Power
Pr  Pt  Gt  Gr  20 log10 (4 )  20 log10 (r )  20 log10 ( )

 Changing units from metres to kilometres and from wavelength in

metres to frequency in Gigahertz:

Pr  Pt  Gt  Gr  20 log10 (4 )  20 log10 (1000d )  20 log10 (0.3 / f )

Pr  Pt  Gt  Gr  92.4  20 log10 ( f )  20 log10 (d )

Pr  Pt  Gt  Gr  FSL
FSL  92.4  20 log10  f (GHz)  20 log10  d (km)
 Linking Gain and Beamwidth
 A practical microwave antenna will produce a gain
by concentrating the energy into a narrow beam.
r 2 2 4r 2
 For an antenna of gain Gt, the area illuminated 
will be reduced compared with that illuminated
4 Gt
by an isotropic antenna by a factor equal to its
Gt  16 2
gain. 
 4
Gt
r
  230 degrees
 r Gt
Linking Gain and4Antenna Diameter
D 2
G  Ae Ae 
 2
4
2 2
 D  Df 
G  
    0.3 
G  20.4  20 log10 D  20 log10 f
 The above equation ignores inefficiencies in the antenna system. A
more realistic equation is

G  17.5  20 log10 D  20 log10 f

Linking Antenna Diameter and Beamwidth
 From the previous slides:

2
Df 
G
 0.3 
230

G
230  0.3
 
Df
Df  22

• Diameter (metres) x frequency (GHz) x Beamwidth (degrees)  22

EIRP
 A commonly used term - “Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power”.

EIRP(dBm)  Pt (dBm)  Gt (dBi)

EIRP( watts )  Pt ( watts )  Gt (ratio )
Feeders and Combiners
 Co-axial cable is not suitable at frequencies above about 3 GHz.
 A hollow metal tube known as “waveguide” is used over the frequency range 3 - 30
GHz.
 The size of the waveguide depends on the frequency being used and typically has a
width of 0.7.
 Usually made of copper or brass with a copper plating inner coating. Occasionally
silver plated.
 Losses typically 0.1 dB per metre. The higher the frequency, the higher the loss.
Feeders and Combiners
 A diplexer is a sophisticated device that makes it possible to transmit and receive
from the same antenna.
 The received signal is sometimes the combination of two antennas.
 Combiners and splitters have an insertion loss that must be considered when
predicting the received signal level.
 All miscellaneous losses must be considered.
The Link Budget

 The Link Budget is usually of the form of a table that ensures no sources of losses or gains are
forgotten.

 Expressing all powers, losses and gains in dB, dBi, dBm etc. Allows us to simply add or subtract the
relevant amounts.

 The simplified link budget equation is given below. Each element would be arrived at by considering
its constituent parts.
Received Power = EIRP - FSL + Rx antenna gain - Misc Losses
The Link Budget

 Being able to determine the received power level is a significant achievement.

 However, the question “Is this power level sufficient?” must be answered.

 To be able to answer this question requires an understanding of system noise.

Session 3
Noise Considerations
Noise Considerations
 Thermal Noise forms the fundamental limitation of any telecommunications
system.
 The level of thermal noise is directly proportional to bandwidth and
absolute temperature.
Noise Power  kTB watts

 k is Boltzmann’s constant and equals 1.38x10-23 joules/kelvin.

Noise Considerations
 An antenna can be thought of as a noise gathering device.
 The figure for “absolute temperature” depends on where the antenna is
looking.
 For terrestrial systems, “normal” values such as 290 K are suitable.

 For high quality satellite systems, values of T as low as 40 K are achievable.

 Cheaper systems (e.g. Sky TV) have values of 160 K.
Receiver Noise Figure and Noise Temperature

 No radio receiver is perfect, they all add noise to the system.

 The SNR at the output of any amplifier is worse than at the input.

 This is accounted for mathematically by imagining a noise generator at the

input of the amplifier.
 This noise generator has a power output of kTeB where Te is the noise
temperature of the amplifier.
Receiver Noise Figure and Noise Temperature

kTB
G K(T+Te)BG

kTeB

 If the value of T at the input equals the “standard” temperature, To, of 290 K, then noise at
the output equals

k(To+Te)BG =kToBGF

 F is known as the noise figure of the amplifier.

Receiver Noise Figure and Noise Temperature

kToB
G k(To+Te)BG= kToBGF

kTeB
To  Te  To F
Te
F  1
To
Te  To  F  1
Receiver Noise Figure and Noise Temperature

 Using F is “convenient”. It can be expressed in dB, rather than as a ratio.

 In dB form is represents the “amount by which the SNR gets worse”.

 However, the equation is only valid if the noise at the input equals kToB.

 Abuse of Noise Figure is widespread. Be careful.

 Assessing the minimum signal level
 The error ratio experienced on a system depends on the SNR.
 We need to establish a required SNR in order to determine the minimum required receive
power (known as the receiver “threshold”).
 For example, a minimum SNR of 14 dB is required in order to deliver a BER of better than
1x10-6. The system bandwidth is 8 MHz and the receiver noise figure is 4 dB.
 4 dB is a ratio of 2.5. Noise temperature is therefore 290(2.5-1) = 438 K.
 k(T+Te)B = 1.38x10-23(290+438)8x106 = 8.04x10-14 watts (=-101 dBm)

 SNR required of 14 dB is a ratio of 25. 25 x 8.04 x10-14 =2.0x10-12 watts or -87 dBm. This
establishes the minimum signal level.
 Note: receiver manufacturers will often quote their own threshold level.
 Link Budget re-visited
 We have so far used the link budget to determine the received signal level.
 Establishing the minimum required signal means that we will need to adjust certain
parameters to meet this minimum.
 This may entail, for example, stipulating antenna sizes.

 Let us suppose that we have a 6 GHz system with a link length of 40 km with a transmitter of
250 W power. The minimum received power has been determined to be -87 dBm. Feeder
losses and miscellaneous losses total 5 dB. Determine suitable antenna sizes.
 Link Budget re-visited
 FSL=92.4 +20log(6) + 20 log(40) = 140 dB
 Misc Losses = 5 dB

 Tx Power = -6 dBm. Required Receive Power = -87 dBm

 Allowable losses = 81 dB.

 FSL+Misc losses = 145 dB

 Required Antenna Gains = 145 - 81 = 64 dBi.

 Each Antenna must have 32 dBi gain.

 Gain = 17.5 + 20log(diameter)+20log(frequency in GHz)

 32 = 17.5 + 15.6 +20log(diameter)

 Diameter = 0.88 m. (90 cm antennas would be suitable.)

Noise Figure and Noise Temperature of “cascaded systems”

k(T)B G1,Te1 G2,Te2

k(T+Te1)BG1 k{[(T+Te1) G1]+ Te2 } B G2

k{[(T+Te1) G1]+ Te2 } B G2 =k(T+Te)B G1 G2

Te 2
T  Te1 
G1
Te 2 Te 3
T  Te1   .......... ...
G1 G1G2
Noise Figure and Noise Temperature of attenuators (and feeders)

k(T)B
I k(T+Te)BG

 For a matched attenuator receiving thermal noise at its input, the noise at
the output equals the noise at the input.

kTB  k  T  Te  BG
T   T  Te  G
T (1  G )  Note that, for an attenuator, G will be less
Te  than 1.
G

 T 1 1
G

Cascaded System Example
 An antenna is connected to a receiver via a feeder of loss 2.5 dB. If the
temperature of the feeder is 290 K and the Noise Figure of the receiver is 4
dB, determine the noise figure of the overall combination.

• Noise Figure 4 dB. Ratio of 2.5.

• Noise temperature = 1.5x290=435 K.
• G for attenuator is 0.562. Noise temperature of
attenuator is 290(0.778)=226 K
• Overall noise temperature is 226+435/0.562=1000 K
• Overall noise figure = 1+1000/290=4.45 (6.48 dB)
Cascaded System Example - Low Noise
Amplifier
 To improve the previously described situation, a Low Noise amplifier is
connected between the antenna and the feeder. This has a gain of 15 dB and
a Noise Figure of 3 dB. Determine the new noise figure.

• Noise Figure 3 dB. Ratio of 2. Noise temperature = 290 K

• G for amplifier is 31.6.
• Overall noise temperature is 290+1000/31.6=321.6 K
• Overall noise figure = 1+321.6/290=2.11 (3.24 dB)
Cascaded Systems - The Down-converter
 Waveguide itself becomes very lossy (~1 dB/m) as frequencies of 40 GHz are
approached.
 This would lead to very poor noise performance.
 This problem is overcome by a low noise amplifier that not only amplifies
with a low noise figure but also modulates the incoming signal with a sub-
carrier that reduces the frequency to a lower value (~1 GHz).
 Low loss coaxial cable is then used to carry the signal to the receiver.
SNR Requirements
 The required Signal to Noise ratio is chiefly influenced by the modulation
scheme and the maximum permitted error ratio.
 Shannon’s and Nyquist’s Theorems provide fundamental limits.

• Shannon’s Theorem States that:

• Maximum Capacity = Bandwidth x log2(1 + SNR)
• Nyquist’s Theorem States that:
• Maximum Symbol Rate = 2 x Bandwidth
SNR Requirements: Example
 Bandwidth 7 MHz, SNR 12 dB.
 Maximum Capacity = 7x106 log2(1+15.8) = 28 Mbps

 Maximum Symbol Rate = 14 Megasymbols per second

 Remember: these are theoretical maxima. It is very rare to exceed 50% of the
calculated value in practice.
Symbol Rate and Bit Rate
 Binary modulation systems such as BPSK and FSK send only one bit per symbol.
 More sophisticated modulation schemes such as 8PSK and 16QAM have 3 and 4
bits per symbol respectively.

BPSK 8PSK 16QAM

SNR requirements of different systems

Modulation C/I for BER C/I for BER

Scheme 1 x 10-3 1 x 10-6

BPSK 7 dB 10 dB

4PSK 10 dB 14 dB

8PSK 15 dB 19 dB

16PSK 21.5 dB 24.5 dB

 The variety of C/I requirements for different modulation schemes leads to the
parameter “Energy per bit” (Eb) being used as having global relevance.
Bandwidth requirements of different systems

Modulation Bandwidth
Scheme requirement for
8 Mbps system

BPSK 12 MHz

4PSK 6 MHz

8PSK 3 MHz

16PSK 2 MHz
Signal in Noise Example
• An 8 Mbps QPSK receiver has a bandwidth of 6 MHz and requires a SNR of
requires a signal to noise ratio of 14 dB. Determine its threshold receive
level if it has a noise factor of 4 dB.

• Assuming input noise is at the level k(290)B, the effective

noise power at the input is (4 dB is a ratio of 2.5)
1.38x10-23 x 290 x 6 x 106 x 2.5 = 6 x 10-14 watts
= -102 dBm
• To deliver a signal to noise ratio of 14 dB we need a
minimum level (the “threshold”) of -88 dBm.
Data Rates Carried
 The basic “building block” of digital microwave systems is a 2 Mbit/s link that
will carry, if required, 30 individual 64 kbit/s channels. The 64 kbit/s channel
is the traditional “digitised speech (PCM)” channel.
 Systems are often quoted as “2x2” (i.e. 4 Mbit/s) etc..

 Further multiplexing leads to the “Pleisiosynchronous Digital Hierarchy”

where four 2 Mbit/s link form an 8 Mbit/s link, four 8 Mbit/s form a 34 Mbit/s
link and four 34 Mbit/s systems form a 140 Mbit/s link.
 The synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) specifies higher rates of 155.52
Mbit/s and 622 Mbit/s.
Session 4
Fading
Fading
 Unfortunately, the strength of the received signal will vary with time, often
quite dramatically.
 The two main contributors to “fading” are:
 multipath propagation and;
 hydrometeors (e.g. rain)

 It is important to be able to predict the likely extent of fading and build in a

“margin” to allow for this in our link design.
Multipath Fading
 Variations in the refractive index of the atmosphere make it possible for the
wave to propagate from transmitter to receiver via more than one significant
path.
 Constructive and destructive interference causes the signal received to vary
with time.
Multipath Fading
 Multipath fading exhibits Rayleigh characteristics.
 The deeper the fade the lower the probability

 Percentage time that a fade of depth A dB is exceeded is proportional to 10-

A/10.
 ITU-R report 530-9 gives the formula for percentage as

pw  Kd 3.0
1   p  1.2
100.033 f 0.001hL  A 10

d is the path length in km

f is the frequency in GHz
K is the “radio climactic factor”
p is path inclination in milliradians
Multipath Fading
 Formulas come into the following categories:
 Deterministic
 Heuristic
 Empirical

 The multipath formula is empirical. It is based on experimental evidence and

the formula is created to fit the results.
Multipath Fading
 ITU-R P.530 gives a formula for K

K  10  4.20.0029 dN1

 dN1 can be found from ITU-R P.453-8

 values for dN1 vary between -700 and -100.

 Values for K vary between about 1.23x10-4 and 6.76x10-3
Multipath Fading
dN1 ~ -200 in the United Kingdom.

K  10 4.20.0029 200   2.4  10 4

Multipath Fading
p is the slope of the path in milliradians

 d is in kilometres.
 hr,e is the height of the two antennas (a.s.l.) in metres.

 For a flat path p equals zero.

hr  he
p 
d
Multipath Fading
 For a flat path, with antennas at an elevation of 100 metres, 20 km in length
with an operating frequency of 7 GHz the probability formula becomes:

pw  Kd 3.0
1   p  1.2
100.033 f 0.001hL  A 10

pw  2.4  10 4  203.0  100.03370.1 A 10

 2.60  10  A 10
Multipath Fading
 The formula can be used to produce a table of depth of fade against the
percentage that the fade is exceeded.

Depth of fade in dB Percentage of time

exceeded
10 0.260
15 0.082
20 0.0260
25 0.0082

It can be seen that, if 99.99% availability is required, a “fade margin” of 24 dB

would have to be designed in.
Rain Fading
 Rain and other “hydrometeors” will absorb power from the propagating electromagnetic wave and cause an additional, variable, insertion loss. Again, a “margin” will have
to be designed in to ensure that the required availability is maintained.
 Not surprisingly, this component is very climate dependent. The “rainfall rate exceeded for 0.01% of the time” (measured in mm/hr) is a key parameter. Such information
can be found in ITU-R P.837. The parameter is designated R0.01.
Rain Fading
 R0.01 is approximately 25 mm/hr for the UK.

 Next, ITU-R P.838 must be used to convert this to a attenuation rate in dB/km, R.

 Rain attenuation is polarisation and frequency dependent

 For a flat, vertically polarised path at 7 GHz, k=0.00265, =1.312. Hence R= 0.18 dB/km.

 R  kR
Rain Fading
 The longer the path, and the higher the level of rainfall, the less likely it is that it will be
raining along the entire length of the path.
 This is accounted for by introducing a parameter known as the “effective path length” that
is equal to

d
1 d
d0
d 0  35e 0.015 R0.01  24

 Thus a 20 km path would have an effective length, for rainfall attenuation purposes of
10.9 km.
 0.01% attenuation rate would be (0.18x10.9) = 2 dB.
 Insignificant compared with multipath margin (at these frequencies).
Rain Fading
 For different percentages, p, the value for 0.01% can be modified according
to the formula.

Ap
 0.12 p (0.5460.043 log10 p )
A0.01
Accommodating both Rain and Multipath Fading

 Note that it would be regarded as highly unusual to add the rain and
multipath margins together.
 A more common approach would be to decide on the maximum unavailability
then build in the larger of the two calculated margins.
 The “cause of outage” requiring the lower margin would then increase the
unavailability by a very small amount.
 Rain and multipath fading would not be expected to occur simultaneously.
Selective Fading in Digital Systems

 The multipath fading that we have discussed so far caused an outage by

reducing the signal strength below the threshold.
 High error rates (hence a further “outage”) can occur in digital systems with
the signal distorted by multipath without the wideband power necessarily
reducing significantly.
 A method of predicting the unavailability due to this phenomenon is required.
 Again ITU-R P.530 offers guidance.
Selective Fading in Digital Systems
Note: relative amplitude of
 I the two paths is given the
parameter b.

Tx Rx

 The resilience of receivers to such distortion is measured by means of

introducing a two-ray system whereby the delay and relative strength of the
second signal can be adjusted.
 Attenuation is adjusted for a number of values of  so that the pre-decided
minimum value of BER is reached.
 The result is a set of “signature curves”.
Selective Fading in Digital Systems
1-b
Contours for BER of 10-6

0.4
=32 ns

0.3 =16 ns
0.2
=8 ns
0.1

-4 -2 0.0 2 4 Notch offset (MHz)

 Measurements produce the above “signature curves”.

 For a fixed BER the relative strength of second path depends on the delay and
the notch position.
Selective Fading in Digital Systems
1-b
Contours for BER of 10-6

0.4
=32 ns

0.3 =16 ns
0.2
=8 ns
0.1

-4 -2 0.0 2 4 Notch offset (MHz)

 From a set of curves the parameters, signature width, signature depth and
reference delay can be obtained. These can be quoted by the manufacturer.
Minimum phase and Non-minimum phase
Note: relative amplitude of
 the two paths is given the
parameter b.

Tx I Rx

 A slightly different set of curves is produced if the stronger signal is delayed.

This is known as the “non-minimum phase” configuration.
 The same parameters must be measured for the minimum and non-minimum
phase configurations.
Determining the outage probability due to selective fading

 Step 1: estimate the mean time delay on the path

1.3
d
 m  0.7  ns
 50 

 Step 2: estimate the “multipath activity factor”, for the path.

0.2 P0  0.75
  1 e

P0 
Kd 3.0
1   p  1.2
 100.033 f 0.001hL
100
Determining the outage probability due to selective fading

 Step 3: Obtain values for signature width (W), signature depth (B dB) and
reference delay  from the manufacturers data.

 Step 4: Calculate the outage probability Ps.

  2
 2 
Ps  2.15 WM  10  BM 20 m
 WNM 10  BNM 20 m 
  r ,M  r , NM 
 
Determining the outage probability due to selective fading - example

 Considering a 20 km, 7 GHz link at 100 m altitude as before. (Hence we can

take K to be 2.4 x 10-4) Steps 1 and 2:

P0  2.4  10 4  203.0  100.0337 0.001100  100  0.0260

0.2 0.026  0.75
  1 e  0.013

 Step 3: From manufacturers details

WM=WNM=0.008 GHz (it seems we have an 8 MHz system here);

BM=BNM=5 dB;  = 4 ns.

r
Determining the outage probability due to selective fading - example

 Step 4: Calculate the probability of outage.

 5 20 0.2
2
5 20 0.2 
2
PS  2.15  0.0130.008 10   0.008 10  
 4 4 
 2.5  10 6

 Note that this probability is dependent on path length, frequency and

bandwidth, but NOT on received signal level.
Atmospheric Absorption
 Resonances with oxygen and water molecules lead to energy being absorbed
in a frequency dependent way by the atmosphere. This adds to the path loss.
 Atmospheric absorption is not, strictly speaking, an example of fading as it is
a constant loss. Nevertheless it is necessary to design a margin into the link
in order to compensate for such absorption.
 Atmospheric absorption is negligible below 10 GHz, rising to approximately
0.1 dB/km at 20 GHz. It is approximately 0.1 dB/km between 20 GHz and 40
GHz apart from a resonant peak of 0.2 dB/km at approximately 24 GHz.
Atmospheric Absorption
20

10

 Graph showing losses due to water

vapour and oxygen absorption. Total
1
atmospheric absorption is obtained by
summing the two losses.

L O S S d B /K m
0 .1

r
ou
p
va
er
at
W
0 .0 1
en
O xyg

1 10 100
FR E Q U E N CY G H z.

A d d it io n a l L o s s D u e T o A t m o s p h e r ic C o n t e n t .
Estimating Link Performance
 Now we appreciate the fading mechanisms and their effects, we can look again
at our 7 GHz, 20 km system. Suppose we use a 100 milliwatt (20 dBm)
transmitter. The threshold is assumed to be -87 dBm with miscellaneous losses
amounting to 5 dB. 60 cm antennas are used.
 Step 1: Estimate antenna gains to be 17.5+20log(0.6)+20log(7) = 30 dBi
 Step 2: Free space loss = 92.4+20 log(20)+20 log(7)=135 dB
 Step 3: calculate unfaded receive level to be
 20-5-135+30+30=-60 dBm
Estimating Link Performance - multipath fading

 As the frequency is below 10 GHz, atmospheric absorption can be ignored.

 The unfaded receive level can be seen to be 27 dB above the threshold. This
gives us a “fade margin” of 27 dB.
 We have previously derived a formula

A
p  2. 60  10 10
ForWa link of this length and frequency
 For A = 27 dB, pW is found to be 5.19x10-3%
Estimating Link Performance - rain fading
 We have previously shown that the rain fading margin for a 20 km, 7 GHz path
for 0.01% of the time is 2 dB.
 Although the likelihood is that rain fading can be ignored, we can determine
the percentage outage given a fade of 27 dB from the formula
Ap
 0.12 p  0.5460.043 log10 p 
A0.01
p  0.546 0.043 log10 p   112.5
 For a value of Ap of 27 dB,
 Examining this equation it is found that the outage will be far less than 0.001%,
which is the valid range of the equation. We can therefore ignore outages due
to rain fading.
Estimating Link Performance - selective fading

 We have previously shown that the selective fading outage probability for a 20
km, 7 GHz, 8 MHz bandwidth path is 0.0025%. This is not affected by the
received power level.
 Summing the outages, we would predict a total outage of 0.0052 +0.00025 =
0.0055%.
What’s next?

 We have obtained encouraging estimates of outage. The link, if implemented,

would provide a high quality service.
 However, we must be able to accommodate situations where the initial
prediction is for an unsatisfactory performance.
 Diversity techniques can be used to improve the performance.
 The next session reviews and analyses diversity improvement methods.
Session 5
Diversity Techniques
Diversity Techniques
 Our 20 km, 7 GHz, 8 MHz bandwidth link just meets the 0.01% unavailability
requirement.
 It is sensible to assume that, if we made the path longer, or increased the
bandwidth, or increased the operating frequency, we would struggle to meet
the requirements.
 Sometimes it is possible to improve the situation by increasing the transmit
power, or antenna size.

 Occasionally, these steps alone are not sufficient.

Diversity Techniques
 Diversity basically relies on establishing more than one link and selecting the best
performing link at any one time or, ideally, combining the outputs from the two links
to provide the optimum output.
 Suppose we had estimated the unavailability to be 1% on a particular link.

 If we established a separate, but virtually identical, link that would also have a 1%
unavailability.
 The probability of both links being simultaneously unavailable could be calculated to
be 1%x1%=0.01%.
Diversity Techniques
 Performing the calculation described would be valid only if the two links established
were independent of each other (zero correlation between fading characteristics).
 However, as they are very similar links between the same two points, one would
intuitively expect there to be correlation between the two links.
Diversity Techniques - most common types of diversity systems

 Space diversity:- two receive antennas (usually one above the other) at each end.

 Frequency diversity:- effectively two transceivers at separate frequencies passing the

same information over the same antenna.
 Polarisation diversity:- transmitting the same information via two orthogonal
feeders.
 Angle diversity:- usually achieved by having two separate feedhorns near the focus of
the antenna, each providing a different radiation pattern.
Diversity Techniques - estimating improvement

 The ITU provide a recommended method of estimating the improvement provided

by a diversity technique.
 Essentially, this involves estimating the degree of correlation between the fading of
the two links.
 The term
p(“Improvement
A) Factor” (I) is used where
I
pd ( A)

 p(A) is the probability of a fade without diversity; pd(A) is the probability with
diversity.
Diversity Techniques - space diversity
 ITU-R P.530 gives the following equation for the improvement factor.

  
I  1  exp  0.04  S 0.87 f 0.12 d 0.48 p01.04 10  AV  10 

where
p0  multipath occurence factor (%)

 S is the vertical separation in metres. V is the difference in gain between the Tx and
Rx antennas (usually zero).
Diversity Techniques - space diversity
 In our original link, we predicted a multipath (non-selective) outage of 0.008% for a
margin of 25 dB. To make the situation more realistic for diversity purposes, let’s
assume that the transmit power was reduced so as to make the fade margin 15 dB.
That would give an outage probability of 0.08%.
 Therefore the relevant parameters are: A=15; f=7; d=20; p0=2.5. If the antennas are
separated by 5 metres the improvement factor is

  
I  1  exp  0.04  50.87 7 0.12 200.48 2.5 1.04 10  15 10 
 5.95

 Thus the outage probability with diversity would be expected to be 0.013%.

Diversity Techniques - space diversity
 The equation was produced by examining data produced on links covering the
frequency range 2 - 11 GHz; path lengths 43 - 240 km and antenna separations of 3
to 23 metres.
 Care must be taken when operating outside these parameters. However, the
equation doesn’t immediately “collapse” and the general rules hold:
 The bigger the separation the bigger the improvement
 The longer the path length the bigger the improvement
 Improvement factor is not very frequency-dependent exhibiting a slight
decrease with increasing frequency.
Diversity Techniques - space diversity

 The equations considered so far have dealt with the “non-selective” fading aspects
of the unprotected system.
 A separate procedure must be followed to determine the new outage probability for
the selective fading.
 These two must then be summed in order to obtain the new outage estimate.
Diversity Techniques - other methods

 ITU-R P.530 describes equivalent procedures for estimating the improvement factor
for Frequency, Angle and Polarisation diversity techniques.
Diversity Techniques - combining methods

 Greater improvement can be obtained by implementing more than one technique;

e.g. frequency and space diversity.

Rx f1 Tx

f2
f1
Session 6
Interference Issues
Interference Issues
 Interference is a problem because it “de-sensitises” the receiver.
 It does this by effectively raising the noise floor.

 Remembering our 8 MHz bandwidth system, we calculated a threshold of -87

dBm by deducing that the noise floor was -101 dBm and that the SNR
requirement was 14 dB.
 If interference adds to this noise floor, then the threshold will be raised and
fade margins reduced.
Interference Issues - adding powers
 In order to add powers it is necessary to convert from dBm to milliwatts.
 X dBm = 10X/10 milliwatts

 X dBm + Y dBm = 10log10(10X/10 + 10Y/10) dBm

 E.g. if an interfering signal of -98 dBm is added to the noise floor of -101 dBm,
the resultant power level is 10log10(10-9.8 + 10-10.1) = -96.2 dBm
 The noise floor has effectively increased by 4.8 dB, making the new threshold
-82.2 dBm.
Interference Issues : co-channel and adjacent channel interference.

 The spectrum is divided into “slots” often referred to as “channels”. The width
of each slot determines the bandwidth of the system.

Used Channel
• Possible channel allocations
Adjacent Channels
for a 7GHz system.

MHz
6.992 7.000 7.008 7.016 7.024 7.032 7.040 7.048

• Interference within the bandwidth of the channel

being used is known as “co-channel”. The slots
either side are known as “adjacent channels.
Interference Issues : co-channel and adjacent channel interference.

 Co-channel interference is the most serious.

 Adjacent channel interference is reduced by the selectivity of the filter at the
receiver. Typically, it will be attenuated by 20 dB.
 Interference at frequencies outside this region will be attenuated further and is
less likely to pose a threat to the system.
Interference Issues : possible scenarios
 Off beam gain of a parabolic antenna is typically 45 dB down on main beam
(Effective gain of -10 dBi). This makes high interference levels unlikely.
 Terrestrial microwave links are more likely to cause interference to satellite
systems than be victims themselves. This has licencing implications.
Interference Issues : possible scenarios
 Multi-hop paths present a possible interference problem because of
“overshoot”.

• The effect can be reduced by using orthogonal

polarisations on consecutive hops and/or by
changing the direction between consecutive hops
by more than the antenna beamwidth.
Interference Issues : reduction technique

• Offsetting the direction of the hops.

Interfering antennas no
longer “look at” each
other.
Interference Issues : possible scenarios
 Microwave transmission systems often have a “hub”.
 This hub receives signals from many different links.
Interference Issues : reduction techniques
 High performance antennas can be purchased. These are less susceptible to
“off-beam” interference.
 Frequency planning of the duplex links can also help alleviate problems
Interference Issues : anomalous propagation

 Terrestrial microwave systems are very much “line of sight” systems. The signal
tends not to propagate over the horizon.
 However, on rare occasions, interference occurs from distant systems under
conditions known as “ducting”.
 Ducting falls into a category of propagation conditions referred to as
“anomalous” (“highly unusual”; “noticeably different”).
Interference Issues : ducting

Normal conditions: no interference threat

Anomalous conditions: interference threat

Interference Issues : ducting

 Ducting occurs when the refractive index of the atmosphere varies with height in
such a way as to cause the radio wave to bend with the curvature of the earth.
Receive levels within a few dB of “free space levels” can be experienced on trans-
horizon paths.
Interference Issues : Intermodulation products

 No amplifier is perfectly linear. For an input vi, the output is generally:

v0  avi  bvi 2  cvi 3  dvi 4  .....

 The “even numbered” terms are out of band (harmonics), the “odd numbered”
terms are “in band” and therefore more serious.
Interference Issues : Intermodulation products

• If a number of signals at different frequency are combined within an amplifier, the

third, fifth and seventh order terms produce an interesting effect.

Original Signals

Intermodulation Products
Interference Issues : Intermodulation products

 If a broadband receiver is receiving multiple carriers, two dominant signals can

severely interfere with a third carrier.
 If two signals at the input to an amplifier are at f1 and f2, the most damaging
intermodulation products will be at 2 f2 - f1 and 2 f1 - f2.
 A weak signal at these frequencies will be interfered with.
 Lesser effects occur at 3 f2 -2 f1 and 3 f1 -2 f2.
Intermodulation products (example)

 A broadband receiver receives two signals. One at 10.02 GHz and another at
10.035 GHz. Determine the frequencies of the four most dominant
intermodulation products.
 2 f2 - f1 = 10.050 GHz

 2 f1 - f2 = 10.005 GHz
 3 f2 - 2f1 = 10.065 GHz
 3 f1 - 2f2 = 9.990 GHz
Session 7
Repeatered Systems
Repeatered Systems
 Severe difficulties occur attempting to establish single hops greater than about
50 km due to both fading and visibility problems.
 Longer paths require repeaters.
 Shorter paths with visibility problems will also require repeaters.
Repeatered Systems

 Longer paths require repeaters.

 Shorter paths with visibility problems will also require repeaters.

Active Repeatered Systems

 Active repeaters have a transceiver at each repeater station, demodulating and

re-transmitting the message.
 On digital systems the BER on the entire system is approximately the sum of the
individual BER’s.
 On analogue systems, the noise will accumulate, causing serious problems.
Active Repeatered Systems (Analogue)
Clean Signal Noisy Signal Noisier Signal

 The Signal to Noise ratio on a point to point link is calculated assuming that the
signal is “clean” when it leaves the transmitter.
 On the second hop the signal will be noisy as it leaves the transmitter. Noise
accumulates from hop to hop.
 Analogue systems are vastly inferior to digital systems when multi-hops are
considered.
Active Repeatered Systems (Analysis)
Clean Signal Noisy Signal Noisier Signal

 Repeatered digital microwave systems can be analysed by regarding each hop as

an individual single hop system.
 The total unavailability can be approximated to be the sum of the individual
unavailabilites (provided that the individual unavailabilities are fractions of a
percent).
Passive Repeatered Systems

 On short, obstructed links, it is possible to avoid the expense of an active

repeater and, instead use a passive repeater.
 The diagram shows a back to back antenna configuration of a passive repeater.
 Total path loss is the sum of the individual hops.
Passive Repeatered Systems (Example)
3 km 3 km f = 14 GHz

 Example: A 14 GHz microwave system is carried over a 6 km path. The path is

obstructed at its mid point and a passive repeater is installed. The antennas
used have a 1.2 m diameter. Estimate the path loss and compare with that of a
single hop of the same length.
 Passive Repeatered Systems (Solution)
3 km 3 km f = 14 GHz

 Antenna Gain ~ 17.5 +20log(1.2)+20log(14)= 42 dBi

 FSL (3 km) = 92.4+20log(3)+20log(14)=124.9 dB

 Loss per hop = 124.9 - 84 = 40.9 dB

 Total loss = 81.8 dB

 For a single (6 km) hop, FSL = 130.9 dB. Path loss = 130.9 - 84 = 46.9 dB.
 Passive repeaters increase the path loss substantially.
Passive Repeatered Systems (Reflectors)

 As an alternative to back-to-back antenna systems, “billboard reflectors” can be used

as passive repeaters. These simply reflect the signal from one antenna to the other.
 Gain of the repeater depends on its size, the frequency of operation and the angle
between the paths.
Reflector Systems (Analysis)


FSL1 FSL2

 For a reflector of surface area A, the gain is given by:

 G = 42.8 + 40 log f(GHz) + 20 log A (m2) + 20 log [cos (/2)] dB

 Overall free space path loss is then FSL1 + FSL2 - G where FSL1 and FSL2 are the losses
of the individual parts of the path.
Reflector Systems (Example)

f = 14 GHz

120 degrees
3 km 3 km

 Considering a 6 km, 14 GHz path as before with 1.2 m antennas, determine the size of
billboard required to limit the path loss to 81.8 dB.
Reflector Systems (Example)

f = 14 GHz

120 degrees
3 km 3 km

 FSL1 = FSL2 = 124.9 dB.

 Path loss = 124.9 + 124.9 - 42 - 42 - G = 81.8 dBi

 G = 84 dB = 42.8 + 40 log 14 + 20 log A (m2) + 20 log [cos (60)]

 1.4 dB = 20 log A

 A = 1.2 square metres.

Reflector Systems (Example)
1.2 m2

5 km 120 degrees 1 km

 Comparison with non-symmetric split.

 G = 84 dB

 Path loss = 129.3 + 115.3 - 42 - 42 - 84 = 76.6 dBi (compared with 81.8 dBi)
 Conclusion is that placing the reflector near one of the sites is advantageous.

 Limitation occurs when it is so close to one end that path loss equals that of a single hop
(always check to ensure your prediction for path loss is greater than that for a single
hop).
Reflector Systems (Double Reflectors)

 Where the angle between the paths is greater than about 130 degrees, the gain of the
antenna reduces noticeably (120 degrees is the “-6 dB angle”; 130 degrees is the “-7.5 dB
angle).
 Double reflector systems can be used for greater angles.
Double Reflectors (Analysis)

15

 Provided adequate clearance is provided (the 15 clearance shown is taken as sufficient),
the gain of the double reflector is approximately equal to the gain of the smaller of the
two.
 If the direction of propagation is changed at the reflector then each reflector will change
the direction of propagation by a different amount.
Double Reflectors (Analysis)

2 
 = 2+180 - 1
1

 Remember

 G = 42.8 + 40 log f(GHz) + 20 log A (m2) + 20 log [cos (/2)] dB

 Compute G for both reflectors and take the smaller of the two.
Double Reflectors (Optimisation)
 G = 42.8 + 40 log f(GHz) + 20 log A (m2) + 20 log
[cos (/2)] dB
 2 and 1 should be as small as possible.  = 2+180 - 1
 E.g. if  has to be 160 degrees. 2 = 20 degrees
and 1 = 40 degrees will be a better solution than
2 = 60 degrees and 1 = 80 degrees.
 However, the smaller the angle the harder it is to
2 
ensure that the one reflector does not obstruct
the other.
1
Session 8
Clearance Issues
Clearance Requirements
 Microwave links are very much “line of sight” systems.

 If anything obstructs the path, the signal strength becomes drastically reduced.
 A “clearance requirement” needs to be established for each link.

 This will include analysing both “earth bulge” and terrain obstructions.
Clearance Requirements
Clearance

Earth Bulge

 We need to be able to calculate the “earth bulge”.

 Then, the terrain data needs to be extracted from mapping information.
Earth Bulge
h h - earth bulge
d1 R - earth radius
d2
d1,2 - distances from hop ends
 Using the law of intersecting cords
2R d1d 2  2 Rh
d1d 2
h
2R

 If h is required in metres and R, d are in kilometres:

1000d1d 2
h
2R
Earth1000
Bulge
d1d 2
h
2R

 Earth bulge is a maximum where d1=d2=d/2.

 Then the earth bulge = d 2 the earth radius to be 6373 km:
125Taking
R

Path Length (km) Max Earth Bulge (m)

10 2.0
20 7.9
30 17.7
40 31.4
50 49.0
60 70.6
 Modified Earth Radius
 Radio signals will continue slightly beyond the horizon. This is because the refractive index
of the atmosphere tends to reduce with height causing the radio wave to bend in the
direction of curvature of the earth.
 Thus the effect of the earth bulge does not have as big an effect as first calculated.

 The effective earth bulge can be calculated by assuming the earth’s radius is larger than its
physical value.

Visible horizon
Radio horizon
 Modified Earth Radius
 The actual Earth’s radius is multiplied by a factor given the value k (often referred to as the
k-factor).
 For a “standard atmosphere”, k = 1.33 reducing the effective earth bulge to 0.75 of its
calculated value.
 k varies with atmospheric conditions.
k = 0.66

k = 1.0
k = 1.33
k = 2.0
k = 4.0
k=¥
 Variability of k-Factor
 Just as we need to know the extent of multipath fading for, say, 0.1% of the time, we also
need to know the minimum value of the k-factor of the same percentage in order to
establish the necessary clearance.
 The value exceeded for 99.9% of the time depends on the climate and on the path length
(as very anomalous atmospheric structures will tend not to occur over large distances
simultaneously. k

0.9

Value of k exceeded for

0.7
99.9% of the worst month.

0.5

0.3
10 20 40 80 Path length (km)
 The Fresnel Parameter
 The amount of clearance required depends on the path length, the position of the
obstruction along the path and the frequency of operation.
 The Fresnel Parameter links these together to give a universally applicable parameter.

b c
h

d1 d2

b  c  d1  d 2

• There exists a value of h such that

b  c  d1  d 2  
2
 Theb Fresnel Parameter
•
c
h
There exists a value of h
such that
d1 d2 b  c  d1  d 2  
2

 The locus of points for which this is true form an ellipsoid in three dimensions known as the “First
Fresnel Zone” and the values of h at points along the path are known as the F1 values.
 If h<<(d1+d2) then F1 in metres is given approximately by

d1d 2
F1  17.3
f  d1  d 2 
• f is in GHz, d1, d2 are measured in kilometres.
The Fresnel Ellipsoid

F1

d1 d2

d1d 2
F1  17.3
f  d1  d 2 
 Clearance Requirements

 The antennas should be sufficiently high to meet the more onerous of the following
requirements.
 For k = 1.33, clearance of 1.0 F1 should be obtained.
 For k = “minimum exceeded for 99.9% of the time”, clearance of 0.3 F1 should be
obtained if the obstacle is rounded or zero if there is a sharp single isolated
obstacle.
 Clearance Requirements (example)
 A 30 km, 14 GHz path has an isolated obstacle 12 metres in height at a distance of 13 km
from one end.

13 km

12 m

30 km
 Clearance Requirements (example)
 k = 1.33. Earth Bulge at 13 km from one end = 17.7/1.33 = 13.3 m
 Add 12 m obstacle height to give 25.3 m in total.

 F1 at 13 km from one end = 12.5 metres

 Total required clearance 37.8 metres.

 Each antenna should be 37.8 metres in height.

13 km

12 m

30 km
 Clearance Requirements (example)
 k = “minimum exceeded for 99.9% of the time” = 0.69. Earth Bulge at 13 km from one end
= 17.7/0.69 = 25.7 m
 Add 12 m obstacle height to give 37.7 m in total.
 Zero F1 clearance required as obstacle is isolated.

 Each antenna should be 37.7 metres in height.

 37.8 metres calculation should be used.

13 km

12 m
30 km
 Diffraction loss.
 If the required clearance cannot be obtained, then an additional path loss will be incurred.
 This loss can be estimated using the following techniques:

 Knife edge obstacle

 Obtain Fresnel parameter,v from
 (all parameters in the same units) 2 1 1 
 Then predict path loss in dB vh   
  d1 d 2 

 Note: valid for v > -0.7

Path loss  6.9  20 log  
 v  0.1 2  1  v  0.1 dB
 Diffraction loss (example)
 A 30 km, 14 GHz link is obstructed at its midpoint by a knife-edge obstacle such that the
value of h is 5 metres. Determine the diffraction loss incurred.

2 1 1 
vh   
  d1 d 2 
2  1 1 
5   
0.0214  15000 15000 
 0.558
Path loss  6.9  20 log   v  0.1 2  1  v  0.1 
 6.9  20 log   0.558  0.1 2  1  0.558  0.1 
 10.75 dB
 Diffraction over “average terrain”
 The description “knife-edge” may not apply to a particular obstacle.
 An approximate formula for average terrain exists based on the “normalized clearance”
expressed as a multiple of F1.
 Path loss ~ 10 - 20 h/ F1 dB.

 Note: valid for values of h larger than F1 (obstructed paths only).

Diffraction over “average terrain” (example)

 A 30 km, 14 GHz path propagates over “average terrain” of height equal to the height of
the base of the antenna towers.
 The antennas are 15 m above ground level.
 Determine the diffraction loss when the k-factor is 0.7.
 Diffraction over “average terrain” (solution)

 Earth Bulge =
125d 2 kR  25.6 m

d1d 2
F1  17.3
f  d1  d 2 
 12.6 m

 Obstruction = 25.6 - 15 = 10.6 metres

 h/F1 = -0.84
 Diffraction Loss = 10 - 20x(-0.84) = 27 dB
Fading due to Ground Reflections

Diffracted Rays

Reflected Ray

 Multipath caused by ground reflection can cause severe fades.

 Smooth ground causes more severe fading than rough ground .

Fading due to Ground Reflections

• As the path length difference between the reflected and direct ray alters,
“constructive” and “destructive” interference is experienced. Destructive
interference can cause a severe reduction in signal strength .
Fading due to Ground Reflections

Direct Ray
Constructive
Interference
Reflected Ray

Resultant
Fading due to Ground Reflections

Direct Ray
Destructive
Interference
Reflected Ray

Resultant
 Protecting against Reflection Fades

 The effect is that an “interference pattern” develops in which the strength of the
received signal varies with height.

“Null” or “Trough”
“Peak”
Fading due to Ground Reflections

 ITU-R P.530-10 gives a “more

accurate” equation for determining
3.9  0.003dN1  0.42
the climatic factor K: K  10 sa

Approximation: K  2.4  104

sa  6 K  2.4  104
sa  12 K  1.8  10 4
sa  24 K  1.3  104
sa  42 K  1.0  104
The Rayleigh Criterion
 The phase difference  between two rays
4s sin 
reflecting from two different surfaces    42 sf sin 

separated by distance s is given by


s
42sf sin   0.1 specular
42sf sin   10 diffuse
0.1  42 sf sin   10 transition
Protecting against Reflection Fades

 Use vertical polarisation – the reflection coefficient is lower.

 That causes the reflected ray to be weaker.
Protecting against Reflection Fades
 Shielding of Reflection point
 Checks must be made to ensure that shielding occurs throughout the
range of k-factors that will be experienced.
Protecting against Reflection Fades
 Moving of Reflection point to poorer reflecting surface
 Protecting against Reflection Fades
• Optimum choice of antenna heights.

“Null” or “Trough”

“Peak”
Protecting against Reflection Fades

 A problem – the interference pattern is not stationary. Changes in earth

curvature k-factor and variations in the tide cause the pattern to move with
time.
Protecting against Reflection Fades
 The pattern moves because the path length
difference changes.

d /2 d /2

• If the reflection point is at

the midpoint, then (by

  d / 2  h   d / 2 
Pythagoras):
2 2
d  2
Protecting against Reflection Fades
 Example: d  20 km; k  1.33
 Antenna heights: 25 m a.s.l.

 Ground heights vary from 6 m below s.l. to 4 m a.s.l .

d /2 d /2

h
Protecting against Reflection Fades
 Earth Bulge: 125d 2 / kR  5.9 m
 At 6 m below sea level path length

 
difference is:
d  2 10000 2  25.12  10000  0.063 m

 At 4 m above sea level path length

difference is:
 
d  2 10000 2  15.12  10000  0.023 m

 Variation is 0.040 metres.

Protecting against Reflection Fades
 It is this variation of path length difference that is significant. A variation
by a full wavelength means that any fixed antenna will experience a “null”.
 40 mm corresponds to a frequency of 7.5 GHz.
 At frequencies of 7.5 GHz and above it would be impossible to position an
antenna so as to avoid the occurrence of a null.

d /2 d /2

h
Protecting against Reflection Fades
 In such circumstances, diversity would be required.
 For example, if two antennas were placed at different heights, the
likelihood of a null occurring simultaneously at both antennas is
virtually zero.

 Frequency Diversity can also be used to similar effect .

75d
fh
Using Field Measurements

 If the reflection coefficient of the ground is low, or the reflecting surface is very
rough, the difference between the peak and the trough will be very small.
 One advantage of reflection fades is that the reflecting surface is always there
(unlike atmospheric ducts).
 It is therefore possible to measure the variation of signal strength with height
and assess the seriousness of the problem.
 The difference between the peak and the null indicates the likely depth of
reflection fading that will be experienced.
Session 9
Unavailability and Performance Objectives
Definitions
 Unavailability: System “not working” for 10 consecutive seconds.
 “Not working” defined as BER worse that 1 x 10-3.
 Outages: Exist for less than 10 seconds and the system is still regarded as
“available” (even though the user cannot access it).
 Outages are subject to “performance objectives”.
Unavailability
 Unavailability can be caused by either:
 Propagation problems
 Multipath
 Diffraction Loss
 Ducting
 Rain
 Equipment Failure
Propagation Problems
 Multipath problems: unlikely as multipath outages tend to be short-lived (much
less than 10 seconds).
 Diffraction loss: obeying clearance rules should avoid this.
 Ducting: generally restricted to well-known geographical regions. Can be
combatted with space diversity.
 Rain: the most likely cause of “propagation related” unavailability at high (10
GHz+) microwave frequencies.
Equipment Problems
 Definitions
 MTBF: Mean Time Between Failures (usually several thousand hours)
 MTTR: Mean Time To Restore.

 Availability

MTBF
A  100%
MTBF  MTTR

 Unavailabity
U  100  A
Equipment
 Example:
Problems
 For a single transceiver and associated equipment
 MTBF = 50,000 hours
 MTTR = 6 hours

 Link MTBF = (Terminal MTBF) x 0.5 = 25,000 hours

25000
A  100%  99.976%
25000  6
U  0.024%

 If we have a 12 hop link the total unavailability = 12x0.024=0.29% (approximately

25 hours per year).
Equipment Problems: Hot Standby
 A “hot standby” is a duplicate system permanently powered up and ready to
replace the active system should a fault occur.
 Should a transmitter fail, for example, a replacement is switched into its place.
This can occur in as short a time as 20 ms.
 With MTBF as long as 50000 hours, unavailability due to transmitter or receiver
failure becomes negligible.
Implementing Hot Standby
 Transmitter Hot Standby.
 Cannot have both connected simultaneously.
 An RF switch is required to connect the Hot Standby to the antenna
system in the event of the Main Transmitter failing.

Main
Transmitt
er
Hot
Standby
Implementing
 Receiver Hot Standby.
Hot Standby
 It is possible to connect two receivers to the antenna system
simultaneously, via a coupler.

Main
Receiver

Hot
Standby
 Receiver Hot Standby: Coupler Analysis
 A symmetrical coupler will have an insertion loss of at least 3 dB (usually nearer 4
dB) that must be accounted for in the link budget.
 Asymmetrical couplers can put more insertion loss in the standby leg and less in
the main leg.

From Antenna To Main From Antenna To Main

To Standby To Standby

Symmetrical Coupler Asymmetrical Coupler

Receiver Hot Standby: Coupler Analysis
 Suppose a coupler produces a 1 dB resistive loss.
 That means that, if we have 10 nW at the input, we will have a total of 8 nW at the
output.
 If this is divided equally, each arm of the coupler will receive 4 nW, equivalent to a
loss of 10log10(2.5)=4dB.
 Alternatively, one arm could receive 7.27 nW and the other arm 0.727 nW.
 The losses would then be 1.4 dB and 11.4 dB respectively.

 The choice of having only 1.4 dB loss “permanently” and an extra 10 dB

degradation of fade margin during standby periods is argued to be superior to
having 4 dB loss in both “main” and “ standby” modes.
Unavailability Objectives
 ITU-T G.821 divides a hypothetical long-distance channel into “High Grade”,
“Medium Grade” and “Local Grade” services.
 Objectives for High Grade circuits of length L, where L is between 280 km and
2500 km are:


A  100  0.3  L
2500
%
 Local Grade (e.g. GSM interconnect) objectives proposed vary between 0.01% and
0.2%. This affects repair philosophy.
Performance Standards
 These standards define the required system performance when it is available.
 Causes of degradation in performance:
 Multipath Fading (as previously analysed)
 Background Errors (Gaussian noise has no absolute maximum value and,
hence some errors will occur)
 Wind (causes misalignment of antennas)
Performance Criteria: High Capacity Services
 ES: Errored-second; any 1 second period in which an error occurs.
 Not an appropriate measure when 1 second can contain several million bits. Instead, a
block of data is considered and new terms are introduced.
 EBR: Errored Block Ratio; refers to blocks containing one or more errors. Block size is
specified for each system rate.
 ESR: Errored Second Ratio; A 1-second period that contains one or more errored
blocks.
 SESR: Severely Errored Second Ratio; A 1-second period that contains greater than 30%
or errored blocks.
 BBE: Background Block Error; An errored block not occurring as part of an SES.

 In-service measurements of block errors is possible.

Performance Criteria
 Local Grade (including links between cellular sites)
 SESR should not exceed 0.00015 during the worst month.
 ESR should not exceed 0.012 during the worst month
Linking SNR, BER, ES, ESR and SESR
 We have seen that SNR affects the BER. This will in turn affect the other parameters.
 As an example, consider the procedure to predict the SESR caused by rain attenuation.

 Step 1: for the system under consideration use ITU-R P.530-9 to estimate the BER that
will result is SES (BERSES)
 Step 2: calculate the receive level without rain attenuation and hence calculate the
rain attenuation margin.
 Step 3: calculate the annual time percentage that the rain attenuation will exceed the
margin.
 Step 4: translate this to a worst month percentage (see ITU-R P.841)
Rain-induced SESR (example)
 Consider an 18 GHz, 2 Mbit/s (VC-12) link located in Italy. Link length is 5 km.

 Step 1: BER to cause SESR is 4.0x10-4.

 Step 2: use manufacturers data to ascertain that BER of 4.0x10-4 corresponds to receive level
of -95 dBm. Calculate free space receive level to be -66 dBm. Margin is therefore 29 dB.
 Step 3: R0.01 = 40 mm/hr. R = 8.1 dB/km (see section 4 Ques.2). Effective path length = 3.97
km. Rain attenuation = 32 dB. We need percentage of time that rain attenuation will be 29
dB. This is given by

Ap
 0.12 p (0.5460.043 log10 p )
A0.01
 By trial and error this is found to be 0.013%
 Step 4: Convert to worst month.
NokiaEDU
Telecom
KPI Overview

RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

Module Objectives

• After completing this module, you will be able to:

• Name the documentation for detailed definitions of Nokia KPIs
• Explain how to derive network KPIs based on performance counters

347 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

Key Performance Indicators
KPI groups overview

• Accessibility KPIs characterize the availability of a service, or service element to its users
• Retainability (reliability) KPIs characterize Service Drop Rates or to Transport Error Rates
- that is, the ratio between erroneous or lost data units and the overall number of data units sent
• Mobility KPIs build a group of statistics related to hand-over procedures
- They could be also discussed in the Latency and Accessibility groups as well, because HO-related KPIs
are either service interrupt time or success ratio type KPIs
• Integrity KPIs identify the quality and power of the radio transmission and are one of the most
important indicators of network performance
• Usage KPIs give the information on cell resources consumption and throughput

348 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

Air interface KPIs LTE
• KPIs are categorized to distinguish different performance aspects.
• The names indicate the respective category according to 3GPP32.410 and 3GPP32.450.

Integrity:
Average CQI
Accessibility: Average Latency
RRC Setup Success Rate RLC PDU
E-RAB Setup Success Retransmission
Usage:
Rate
eNodeB1 Cell Availability eNodeB2
S1 Setup Success
Resource Block
Call Setup Success Rate
Usage
IP/PDCP/RLC Layer
Throughput
X redirection
Inter RAT

UE X2

X
Retainability:
Mobility:
RRC Drop Rate
Intra eNodeB HO
E-RAB Drop Rate
Success Rate
Inter eNodeB HO
Success Rate

349 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

Introduction
List of top level KPIs Category
• These are most
important LTE KPIs
per each category
Integrity / Quality
350 RA47042EN16GLA0
Key Performance Indicator
Availability E-UTRAN Cell Availability Ratio
E-UTRAN Initial E-RAB Accessibility
E-UTRAN Total E-UTRAN RRC Connection Setup Success Ratio
E-UTRAN Initial E-RAB Setup Success Ratio
Accessibility E-UTRAN Data Radio Bearer Setup Success Ratio
E-UTRAN RRC Paging Discard Ratio
E-UTRAN RACH Setup Completion Success Rate
E-UTRAN E-RAB Setup Success Ratio
E-UTRAN E-RAB Drop Ratio, RAN View
Retainability E-UTRAN Total E-UTRAN RRC Connection Re-establishment Success Ratio
E-UTRAN E-RAB Retainability Rate, RAN View, RNL Failure with UE Lost
E-UTRAN Average PDCP SDU Delay in DL, QCI1-9
E-UTRAN RLC PDU Re-transmission Ratio Uplink
E-UTRAN RLC PDU Re-transmission Ratio Downlink
E-UTRAN PDCP SDU Loss Ratio in the UL
E-UTRAN PDCP SDU Loss Ratio in the DL
E-UTRAN Average CQI
E-UTRAN incoming IP Traffic Error Ratio
E-UTRAN Average Latency Downlink
E-UTRAN Average Latency Uplink
E-UTRAN Total HO Success Ratio, intra eNB
E-UTRAN Total HO Success Ratio, inter eNB X2 based
Mobility
E-UTRAN Total HO Success Ratio, inter eNB S1 based
E-UTRAN Inter RAT Total HO Success Ratio
E-UTRAN average PDCP Layer Active Cell Throughput DL
E-UTRAN average PDCP Layer Active Cell Throughput UL
E-UTRAN Average Active UEs with data in the buffer DL
E-UTRAN Average Active UEs with data in the buffer UL
Usage E-UTRAN Averaged IP scheduled Throughput in DL, QCI1-9
E-UTRAN Averaged IP scheduled Throughput in UL, QCI1-9
E-UTRAN Average RRC Connected UEs
E-UTRAN Average PRB usage per TTI UL
E-UTRAN average PRB usage per TTI DL
© Nokia 2016
Introduction – Why Transport KPI for RF
Engineers

• Why does an RF Engineer need to know about transport?

• To detect transport limitation of bandwidth through over subscription
• To determine possible misconfiguration of network causing throughput limitations
not caused by over subscription

351 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

General Measurement Overview
Transmission Measurements

• IP Statistics
• PHB Statistics
• Ethernet Link
• IP Sec
• IP Filtering
• VLAN IP Statistics
• VLAN PHB Statistics
• LTE VLAN Statistics
• Ethernet Interface Statistics
• LTE L2 Switch Statistics
• LTE TWAMP Statistics
• LTE TAC Statistics
• LTE TOP FreqSync Statistics
• LTE TOP PhaseSync Statistics
• WIFI statistics
• LTE_IPv6_Stats
• LTE_IPV6_PHB_Stats
• LTE_VLAN_IPv6_Stats
• LTE_VLAN_IPv6_PHB_Stats
• LTE_IPv4_Stats
• LTE_IPv4_PHB_Stats
• LTE_VLAN_IPv4_Stats
• LTE_VLAN_IPv4_PHB_Stats
• LTE IP Data Traffic Volume Statistics

352 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

Introduction A

• To detect transport limitation of bandwidth through over subscription

• Each link is a 100 Megabit Link. What are the implications to RF?

Residential

Integrated Switch
and Router

Router
Business District

• What is Over Subscription

and why?
• Predicting traffic flow
and under
dimensioning the link
to use the bandwidth
for other links
Entertainment District • Less cost for
transport

353 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

Introduction
• Residential and Business Switch connection
• The time frames for each of these zones offset their busy hour thus only at Rush hour
there might be a limitation.

Residential

Integrated Switch
and Router

Router
Business District

Microsoft Excel
Worksheet
Entertainment District

354 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

Introduction A

• Another reason to know transport statistics is to determine possible misconfiguration

of network causing throughput limitations not caused by over subscription
• Example – Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) Configuration incorrect at Switch
Layer

MTU Size
Ideal Conditions with Max Throughput
Data Size

Padding
MTU Size

Segmented Packet Segmeted Packet

Ethernet Frame Ethernet Frame

• TCP Windowing configuration can cause large number of TCP ACK/NACKs

355 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016
LTE Transmission measurements

• The Performance Package for Transport, provides detailed insight into the performance of the transport interface
of the eNodeB on IP layer.

Ethernet IP MME

eNB IP Router

SAE-GW

S1 / X2 S1
U/C-plane U/C-plane
IP/IPSec IP/IPSec (Transport) IP

Eth MAC Eth MAC Eth MAC Eth MAC

Eth PHY Eth PHY Eth PHY Eth PHY

356 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

LTE IP Statistics

• Counter order (All IP Statistics/IP Version 6 IP Statistics/IP Version 4 Statistics)

• LTE IP statistics measurement (M51120/M51140/M51144) contains PM counters to monitor the performance of IP layer of
S1/X2 interface (both plain and VLAN based).
• With counters included in this measurement user is able to measure amount of:
- incoming/outgoing octets/packets
- incoming erroneous packets
- outgoing packets/octets dropped due to congestion
• LTE VLAN IP statistics measurement (M51127/M51142/M51146) contains PM counters to monitor the performance of VLAN
interface
• With counters included in this measurement user is able to measure amount of:
- incoming/outgoing octets/packets
- incoming erroneous packets
- outgoing packets/octets dropped due to congestion

S1 / X2 S1 / X2
U/C-plane U/C-plane
IP/IPSec IP/IPSec

Eth MAC Eth MAC

S1/X2 VLAN3
S1/X2
Eth PHY VLAN2 Eth PHY
Interface Interface

VLAN1

357 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

LTE Per Hop Behavior (PHB) Statistics

• Counter order (All IP Statistics/IP Version 6 IP Statistics/IP Version 4 Statistics)

• LTE PHB statistics measurement (M51121/51141/51145) contains PM counters to monitor the performance of IP layer of
S1/X2 interface (both plain and VLAN based)
• Granularity of this measurement allows user to measure amount of:
- incoming/outgoing data/packets transmitted
- outgoing data/packets dropped due to congestion
per each PHB (Per-Hop Behavior) class defined for DiffServ (Differentiated services)*

• LTE VLAN PHB statistics measurement (M51128/M51143/M51147) contains PM counters to monitor the performance of IP
layer of S1/X2 interface per VLAN interface
• Granularity of this measurement allows user to measure amount of:
- incoming/outgoing data/packets transmitted
- outgoing data/packets dropped due to congestion
per each PHB (Per-Hop Behavior) class defined for DiffServ (Differentiated services)*

S1 / X2
S1 / X2
U/C-plane
U/C-plane
IP/IPSec
IP/IPSec
AF2 Eth MAC
S1/X2 AF2 Eth MAC
S1/X2 EF AF1
Eth PHY Interface EF AF1
Interface AF4 VLAN Eth PHY
AF4
AF3 BE AF3 BE

358 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

LTE Ethernet Statistics

• LTE Ethernet statistics measurement (M51123) contains PM counters to monitor Ethernet link performance
• With counters included in this measurement user is able to measure amount of:
- incoming/outgoing packets/octets
- incoming/outgoing packets/octets discarded due to rate shaping
- incoming erroneous Ethernet frames
- incoming Ethernet packets due to VLAN mismatch
- outgoing Ethernet packets discarded due to egress shaping per queue per interface
- ingress Ethernet 64-byte blocks discarded due to rate limiting

S1 / X2
U/C-plane S1 / X2
IP/IPSec U/C-plane
IP/IPSec
Eth MAC
S1/X Q4 Eth MAC
2 Eth PHY
Interface S1/X2 Q1 Q5
Eth PHY
Interface Q2
Q3 Q6
Valid for M51123C17 (ethIfOutDiscShaping_Q5) to
M51123C22 (ethIfOutDiscShaping_Q6)

359 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

LTE IP Sec

• LTE IP Sec measurement contains PM counters to monitor performance of IPSec protected traffic on S1/X2
• With counters included in this measurement user is able to measure amount of:
- incoming/outgoing protected frames
- incoming/outgoing discarded frames
- incoming/outgoing bypassed frames

S1 / X2
U/C-plane
U
IP/IPSec

Eth MAC
C S1/X2
VLAN
IPSec Interface Eth PHY
(optional)
tunnel
M

360 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

Performance measurement counters
LTE IP Filtering

• LTE IP filtering measurement contains PM counters to monitor the firewall functionality

of the BTS
• With counters included in this measurement user is able to measure amount of:
- packets discarded due to filter violations
- packets dropped due to ingress rate limiting
May be an indication of Throughput
issues due to incorrect filter rules

361 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

LTE Transport Load
“Side Haul Traffic”

• Transport Load measurement (M8004)

measures GTP-U protocol procedures:
(E)-RRC
(E)-RRC User
User PDUs
PDUs .. User
User PDUs
PDUs
- X2 signaling volume (incoming/outgoing)
PDCP
PDCP
- X2 user data volume (incoming/outgoing) RLC
RLC
MAC
MAC
LTE-L1
LTE-L1 (FDD/TDD-OFDMA/SC-FDMA)
(FDD/TDD-OFDMA/SC-FDMA)
• Based on those counters KPI’s for data volumes and
average throughput are composed (by division by LTE-Uu
eNB
measurement duration) X2-UP
X2-CP (User Plane)
(Control Plane) User
UserPDUs
PDUs
X2-AP
X2-AP GTP-U
GTP-U
X2
SCTP
SCTP UDP
UDP
IP
IP IP
IP
L1/L2
L1/L2 L1/L2
L1/L2

eNB

362 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

Transport Related Measurements

M51129 (VLAN Interface) and M51130 (Ether. Interface): Interface Statistics

• Monitors the performance of each Interface.
• Object: IVIF and IEIF.
• Include counters for:
• Number of received packets and octets.
• Number of transmitted packets and octets.

Helps to detect throughput on the Transport

side. Compare with PDCP Throughput data to
note possible air interface drops (DL) and
network interface drops (UL)

May also be used to help indicate TCP

windowing and MTU Frame issues

363 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

Transport Related Measurements

M51136: Transport Admission Control TCP/UDP Layer Access Control

• Monitors Transmission Admission Control performance.

• Object: TAC.
• Include counters for:
• Number of successful and rejected connection requests per type of request (Normal,
Emergency and handover).

Timing over Packet IEEE 1588

M51132: TWAMP Statistics measurement statistics
• Measurements related to the LTE574: IP Network Measurements feature. It
measures the Round Trip Time (RTT) and Packet Loss Ratio (PLR)
• Object: TWAMP.
• Include counters for:
• M51132C0 / M51132C1 / M51132C2: Average, Max and Min RTT.
• M51132C3: Number of lost TWAMP messages.
• M51132C4: Number of transmitted TWAMP messages

Note: Timing over Packet is critical for the synchronization of sites to a common timing
source when GPS is not available such as in Metropolitan Train systems.

364 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

 Transport Related Measurements

M51137: TOP FreqSync Statistics Timing over Packet IEEE 1588v2

measurement statistics
• Monitors ToP FreqSync performance.
• Object: TOPF. Problems in these statistics may be
• Include counters for: seen in Handover and Interference
• Number of received synch. Messages problems when the sites are
• Min, Max and Ave synch. Error (in micro seconds) synchronized to the same timing
source

M51138: TOP PhaseSync Statistics

• Monitors ToP PhaseSync performance.
• Object: TOPP.
• Include counters for:
• Number of received synch. Messages
• Min, Max and Ave estimated phase error

Note: Timing over Packet is critical for the synchronization of sites to a common timing
source when GPS is not available such as in Metropolitan Train systems.

365 RA47042EN16GLA0 © Nokia 2016

QoS in IP networks

Privileged and confidential. The information contained in this material is privileged and confidential, and is intended
only for the use of the individual to whom it is addressed and others who have been specifically authorized to receive
it. If you are not the intended recipient, you are hereby notified that any dissemination, distribution or copying of this
material is strictly prohibited. If you have received this material in error, please destroy it immediately.
 QoS in IP networks

Contents
• OSI
• Protocol Stack
• Port numbers
• TCP/UDP
• The need for QoS
• LTE Network QoS
• IP precedence,
• Differentiated services (DiffServ)
• Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS)

367
 Protocol Encapsulation

User Data
HOST A HOST B

APPLICATION User Data APPLICATION

PRESENTATION User Data PRESENTATION

SESSION User Data SESSION

TRANSPORT User Data TRANSPORT

NETWORK User Data NETWORK

LINK User Data LINK

PHYSICAL User Data PHYSICAL

NETWORK (Transmission Channel)

368
 Protocol Stack

Network
Data Network
Application Application
Message
Application Application
Message
Presentation Presentation
Message
Session Session
Segment
Transport TCP/UDP Transport
Packet Packet
Network (IP) Network Network
Frame Frame
Data Link(ATM/Ethernet) Data Link ATM Data Link
Signal Signal
Physical (SDH) Physical Physical

Host or End Relay or Intermediate Host or End

System (ES) System (IS) System (ES)

Layer 3- Switching

369
 Transport layer protocols

 TCP/IP is based on a four layer model

OSI 7 layer model TCP/IP

Application
Application layer
Presentation
Services
Session
Transport TCP UDP
ICMP IPv4, IPv6
Network IP
ARP/RARP
Ethernet/ATM/Frame Data Link
Data Link Relay etc

Physical Physical
SDH
370
 Port numbers

 Port numbers are used by TCP and UDP to identify the source and destination
application running in multi tasking systems.
 Dynamic port numbers are used by the client
 Well known port numbers are used by the server:
TCP 20 FTP Data
TCP 21 FTP
TCP 23 Telnet
TCP 25 SMTP

UDP 53 Domain
UDP 67 BOOTP Server
FTP Server

21

TCP UDP TCP UDP

IP IP

Ethernet Ethernet

371
 TCP

NETWORK
LAYER(3)

1 PACKET
3 2
PACKET SWITCH
3
SWITCH 1
PACKET 2 3 1

2
3 2 1 SWITCH
PACKET
1
PACKET
SWITCH
SWITCH
eNodeB

LTE: All services would be packet-switched

372
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Source Port Indicates the port of the sending process. It is the port to
which replies are addressed.
Destination Port Specifies the port of the destination process on the
destination host.
Length The length (in bytes) of this user datagram, including the
header.
Checksum

373
 Layer 3 - Switching

0 4 8 16 19 24 31
VERS HLEN Service Type Total Length
Identification Flags Fragment Offset
Time To Live Protocol Header Checksum
Source IP Address
NETWORK
Destination IP Address LAYER(3)
IP Options (If any) Padding
DATA
...

1 PACKET
3 2
PACKET SWITCH
3
SWITCH 1
PACKET 2 3 1

2
3 2 1 SWITCH
PACKET
1
PACKET
SWITCH
SWITCH
eNodeB

LTE: All services would be packet-switched

374
 Layer 3 - Switching

0 4 8 16 19 24 31
VERS HLEN Service Type Total Length
Identification Flags Fragment Offset
Time To Live Protocol Header Checksum
Source IP Address
NETWORK
Destination IP Address LAYER(3)
IP Options (If any) Padding
DATA
...

128.2.7.9 126.2.7.9

PACKET
SWITCH

IP address = <network number><host number> IP address = <network number><host number>

128.2 being the network number

7.9 being the host number
375
 Address Classes

 IP addresses broken down into five Classes

 Only 3 are directly usable for host addresses
 High order bit rule defines class of address

Class Network.Host High Order Bits 1st Byte Nets Hosts

A N H H H 00000000 1-126 126 16M
B N N H H 10000000 128-191 16K 65K
C N N N H 11000000 192-223 2M 254
D Multicast 11100000 224-239 - -
E Reserved 11110000 240-255 - -

376
 LTE is all IP

HSS
S1
MME
Serving
Gateway

Network Test Server

Router / Gateway 10.X.XX.
X2 for Drive testing

192.128.10.101

192.128.10.0

PCI
GCID
VLAN ID
Host address: 192.128.10.1
Mask : 255.255.255.0
Default Gateway: 192.128.10.101
377
 IP datagram

0 4 8 16 19 24 31
VERS HLEN Service Type Total Length
Identification Flags Fragment Offset
Time To Live Protocol Header Checksum
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
IP Options (If any) Padding
DATA
...

378
 The need for QoS

QoS developments in IP networks is inspired by new types of

applications:
–VoIP, VoIPtrunks
•Low bit rate variability, strict delay requirements, jitter
sensitive
–Audio/video streaming
•Low/medium bit rate variability, elastic delay and jitter
requirements
–Networked virtual environments, interactive gaming
•Medium bit rate variability, delay intolerant, jitter
sensitive,error intolerant

379
 3G Services and QoS Classes

RT
Telephony
Video Telephony
VoIP •Each application is
DELAY SENSITIVE

Radio Streaming Video different in Nature.

Some are highly
Web Browsing Location Services Computer Games
delay
E-mail Server Backups
NRT
Casual Critical
INTEGRITY

VoIP requires very low jitter, a one-way

delay in the order of 150 milliseconds

380
 EPC
Http VoIP Providing low loss, latency and jitter for
FTP streaming some traffic aggregate means ensuring
SMTP
that the aggregate sees no (or very
NON REAL REAL TIME small) queues.
TIME SERVICES
SERVICES

Port Number Port Number

TCP UDP

IP

381
 LTE Network QoS

LTE-Uu S1-U S5
Serving P-
PDN
Gateway Gateway
EPS Bearer External Bearer

Radio Bearer S1 - Bearer S5 - Bearer

382
 Packet classification
Buffering issues may be overcome by enabling separate voice and video data
queues in the network switches and routers.
Separate queues allow time critical data such as audio and video to be transmitted
in a priority fashion.

Queuing is enabled by some type of packet classification or prioritization scheme.

Several different schemes currently exist for providing priority to network packets.
These include:

• Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP),

• IP precedence,
• Differentiated services (DiffServ)
• Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS).

383
 The Original IPv4 ToS Byte
0 4 8 16 19 24 31
VER HLE
S N
ToS Total Length Precedence was a 3 bit field which
Flag
Identification
s
Fragment Offset treats high priority packets as more
Time To Live Protocol Header Checksum important than other packets.
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address If a router is congested and needs to
IP Options (If any) Padding discard some packets, it will discard
DATA
packets having lowest priority first.
...

Although precedence field was part

of version 4, it was never used.

The 3 bits restrict the number of

possible priority classes to eight.

Control classes are usually reserved

for router-generated packets such as
routing updates, ICMP messages

384
 DiffServ Codepoint Field
0 4 8 16 19 24 31
VERS HLEN ToS Total Length
Identification Flags Fragment Offset
Time To Live Protocol Header Checksum
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
IP Options (If any) Padding
DATA
...

The modern redefinition of the ToS field is a six-bit Differentiated Services Code
Point (DSCP) field and a two-bit Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) field.
Class Selector

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) Explicit Congestion
Notification

385
DS routing

DS requires routers
that support queue
scheduling and
management to
prioritize outbound
packets and control
the queue depth to
minimize congestion
in the
network.

386
 DiffServ
DiffServ relies on a mechanism to classify and mark packets as belonging to a
specific class.

DiffServ-aware routers implement per-hop behaviors (PHBs), which define the

packet-forwarding properties associated with a class of traffic.

387
 Classification and marking
Traffic may be classified by many different parameters, such as source
address, destination address or port numbers and assigned to a specific traffic
class.

Packet classification and policing can be carried out at the edge of the network
by edge router

388
 Different traffic classes
In theory, a network could have up to 64 (i.e. 26) different traffic classes using
different DSCPs.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) Explicit Congestion
Notification

In practice, however, most networks use the following commonly defined Per-Hop
Behaviors:

Default PHB (Per hop behavior)— which is typically best-effort traffic

Expedited Forwarding (EF) PHB— dedicated to low-loss, low-latency traffic
Assured Forwarding (AF) PHB— gives assurance of delivery under prescribed
conditions
Class Selector PHBs— which maintain backward compatibility with the IP
Precedence field.

389
 Default PHB
Essentially, any traffic that does not meet the requirements of any of the other
defined classes is placed in the default PHB.

Typically, the default PHB has best-effort forwarding characteristics. The

recommended DSCP for the default PHB is 000000B (0).

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) Explicit Congestion
Notification

390
 Expedited Forwarding (EF) PHB
Expedited Forwarding (EF) PHB
The IETF defines Expedited Forwarding behavior in RFC 3246. The EF PHB has
the characteristics of low delay, low loss and low jitter. These characteristics are
suitable for voice, video and other real time services.

EF traffic is often given strict priority queuing above all other traffic classes.

The recommended DSCP for expedited forwarding is 101110B (46 or 2EH

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) Explicit Congestion
Notification

EF PHB is especially suitable for applications (like VoIP) that require very low
packet loss, guaranteed bandwidth, low delay and low jitter.

391
 DiffServ Per-Hop Behaviours

Expedite Forwarding PHB (EF-PHB)

Provide guaranteed bandwidth low delay and jitter.
Strict admission control: Non-conformant traffic is dropped or
shaped.
EF traffic should not be influenced by the other traffic classes.

•Each PHB is mapped to a

Rate I/F
queue EF Q1 limiting SP shaping
•EF is served as Strict Q2 W1
AF4
Priority AF3 Q3 W2
•Other PHBs are served as W3
WFQ
AF2 Q4
WFQ W4
•Lowest priority queues are AF1 Q5 W5
controlled by a WFQ BE Q6
scheduler (weights: w1-w5)

392
 Assured Forwarding

Assured forwarding allows the operator to provide assurance of delivery as long

as the traffic does not exceed some subscribed rate.

Traffic that exceeds the subscription rate faces a higher probability of being
dropped if congestion occurs.

IP datagram
Number of bits
4 4 8 variable

Version
Header
Length
Type of
Service
... Data
The AFxy PHB defines four AFx
classes: AF1, AF2, AF3, and AF4.
6 MSBs LSBs are not assigned

PHB determines the

DSCP Priority policy: Each class is assigned a certain
EF – strict priority
queue. EF AF4 – highest among AF amount of buffer space and
AF1 – lowest among AF
AF4 BE – lowest priority interface bandwidth, dependent on
AF3 the SLA with the Service
AF2 Provider/policy).
DSCP AF1 Queue based on PHB
Classifier
switch BE

393
 Assured Forwarding (AF)

The AF behavior group defines four separate AF classes with Class 4 having the
highest priority.

Within each class, packets are given a drop precedence (high, medium or low, where
higher precedence means more dropping).

The combination of classes and drop precedence yields twelve separate DSCP
encodings from AF11 through AF43 .

higher precedence means more dropping highest priority

394
 DiffServ Per-Hop Behaviours

Assured Forwarding PHB (AF-PHB)

•Four classes are defined that provide different forwarding
guarantees. Within each class, there are three drop
precedence.
•Non-conformant traffic is remarked.

Weighted Fair Queuing EF Q1 Rate

limiting SP I/F
shaping
(WFQ)assigns a weight Q2
AF4 W1
to each flow, which W2
AF3 Q3
determines the transmit W3
WFQ
AF2 Q4
order for queued W4
Q5
packets. In this AF1 W5

scheme, lower weights BE Q6

are served first.

395
Class Selector (CS) PHB

Prior to DiffServ, IPv4 networks could use the Precedence

field in the TOS byte of the IPv4 header to mark priority
traffic.

If a packet is received from a non-DiffServ aware router

that used IP precedence markings, the DiffServ router can
still understand the encoding as a Class Selector code
point

Class Selector

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) Explicit Congestion
Notification

396
 Summary

Different Per-Hop Behaviours (PHB)are defined for

each traffic class.
DSCP

DSCP EF

DSCP AF4

DSCP AF3

DSCP
AF2
Operator
AF1
DSCP configurable
BE
DSCP
mapping
6 Default PHBs
corresponding to the IP
egress scheduling queues
397
EPS Bearer

398
 User plane - Bearers

LTE-Uu S1-U S5
Serving P-
PDN
Gateway Gateway

End to End Bearer

EPS Bearer External Bearer

Radio Bearer S1 - Bearer S5 - Bearer

E-RAB

Evolved Packet switched System

399
 Bearers

LTE-Uu S1-U S5
Serving P-
PDN PDN
Gateway Gateway

Packet
Scheduling Default Bearer
Dedicated Bearer
Default EPS Bearer :
Does not allocate any
Be established during Attach Process
additional IP address to
Allocate IP address to UE
UE
Does not have specifc QoS (only Nominal QoS is applied).
Is linked to a specified
Packet default EPS bearer
Scheduling Dedicated Bearer
Dedicated Bearer
Normally be established during the call setup after idle mode.
Have a specific (usually guaranteed) QoS

Default bearers are created on a per PDN

Packet
Scheduling Default Bearer basis.

Each default bearer comes with an IP

Packet
Scheduling Dedicated Bearer address

400
 Bearers-QoS Class Identifier

LTE-Uu S1-U S5
Serving P-
PDN
Gateway Gateway

Packet
Scheduling
Default Bearer

Packet
Scheduling Dedicated Bearer

A packet with higher

priority can be
expected to be
scheduled before a
packet with lower
priority.

401
Traffic Flow Templates (TFT)
Non Real
Real Time
Time

Application Application

Port Numbers

TCP UDP

IP

402
 Traffic Flow Templates (TFT)
Each EPS bearer is associated with a traffic flow template (TFT).

This comprises a set of packet filters, one for each of the packet flows that
make up the bearer.

Traffic flow template is always associated with dedicated bearer and while
default bearer may or may not have TFT.

EPS Bearer ID
Packet
Packet
Dedicated
filters Data Bearer 8 GTP-U Tunnel 8 GTP-U Tunnel 8
EPS bearer
filters

Packet Packet
Data Bearer 8 GTP-U Tunnel 8 GTP-U Tunnel 8
filters filters

• Source address (with subnet mask)

• IP protocol number (TCP, UDP)
• Destination port
• Source port range P-
• Type of Service (TOS) (IPv4) Gateway
• Flow-Label (IPv6 only)

403
 Traffic Flow Templates (TFT)
0 4 8 16 19 24 31
VERS HLEN Service Type Total Length
Identification Flags Fragment Offset
Time To Live Protocol Header Checksum
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
IP Options (If any) Padding
DATA
...

EPS Bearer ID
Packet
Packet
Dedicated
filters Data Bearer 8 GTP-U Tunnel 8 GTP-U Tunnel 8
EPS bearer
filters

Packet Packet
Data Bearer 8 GTP-U Tunnel 8 GTP-U Tunnel 8
filters filters

• Source address (with subnet mask)

• IP protocol number (TCP, UDP)
• Destination port
• Source port range P-
• Type of Service (TOS) (IPv4) Gateway
• Flow-Label (IPv6 only)

404
 Traffic Flow Templates (TFT)
TFT is set of all packet filter associated with an EPS bearer

ACTIVATE DEDICATED EPS BEARER CONTEXT REQUEST

EPS Bearer ID
P- Dedicated
Data Bearer 8 GTP-U Tunnel 8 GTP-U Tunnel 8
Gateway EPS bearer
The parameters include:
• The source IP address
• The destination IP address
• The source port number
• The destination port number
• The protocol identification (i.e., TCP or UDP).

Up Link Traffic Flow Template (UL TFT) : - Set of uplink packet

filters in TFT

The parameters include:

• The source IP address
• The destination IP address
The Uplink TFT is established by • The source port number
the PCRF and sent to the UE in the • The destination port number
• The protocol identification (i.e., TCP or UDP).
context setup messages. DL
filtering is done in the P-GW and Downlink Traffic Flow Template (DL TFT) : - Set of downlink
packet filters in TFT
it's TFT is also established in the
PCRF

405
ACTIVATE DEDICATED EPS BEARER CONTEXT REQUEST

ACTIVATE DEDICATED EPS BEARER CONTEXT REQUEST

1Pv4-
10.1.10.6 Ipv4 address : 10.1.10.6
Ipv4 mask 255.0.0.0

Data Bearer 6 GTP-U Tunnel 6 GTP-U Tunnel 6

Dedicated EPS bearer

EPS Bearer ID = 6

406
ACTIVATE DEDICATED EPS BEARER CONTEXT REQUEST

ACTIVATE DEDICATED EPS BEARER CONTEXT REQUEST

PORT
Packet Filter
1Pv4- ID=8
10.1.10.6

Data Bearer 6 GTP-U Tunnel 6 GTP-U Tunnel 6

Dedicated EPS bearer

EPS Bearer ID = 6

407
 TWO PACKET FILTERS

MME
ACTIVATE DEDICATED EPS BEARER CONTEXT REQUEST

TWO PACKET FILTERS

Application 1 Application 2
The MME shall initiate the dedicated bearer context activation
procedure by sending an ACTIVATE DEDICATED EPS
BEARER CONTEXT REQUEST message and start the timer
TCP T3485

EPS ID =6
LINK EPS BEARER = 5

Packet Filter 0 Packet Filter 1

Packet Filter ID=0 Packet Filter ID=8 Data Bearer 5 GTP-U Tunnel 5 GTP-U Tunnel 5
IP address 10.1.8.6 IP address 10.1.8.6
Port 61000 Port 31050

Data Bearer 6 GTP-U Tunnel 6 GTP-U Tunnel 6

DEDICATED EPS BEARER

408
Activate Dedicated EPS Bearer Context Accept

Activate Dedicated EPS Bearer Context

Request

Activate Dedicated EPS Bearer Context

Accept MME
Upon receipt of the Activate
Dedicated EPS Bearer
Context Accept message, the
MME shall stop the timer
T3485

The linked EPS Bearer Identity included in the ACTIVATE

DEDICATED EPS BEARER CONTEXT REQUEST message indicates
to the UE to which default bearer, IP address and PDN the dedicated
bearer is linked.

409
 Activate Dedicated EPS Bearer Context Reject

Activate Dedicated EPS Bearer Context

Request

Activate Dedicated EPS Bearer Context TFT’s contain packet filtering

Reject information to identify and
map packets to specific
ESM cause that typically indicates one of the following values: bearers.
The parameters include:
#26: insufficient resources • The source IP address
#31: request rejected, unspecified
#41: semantic error in the Traffic Flow Templates TFT operation
• The destination IP address
#42: syntactical error in the Traffic Flow Templates TFT operation • The source port number
#43: invalid EPS bearer identity
#44: semantic error(s) in packet filter(s)
• The destination port
#45: syntactical error(s) in packet filter(s) or number
#95 – 111: protocol errors
• The protocol identification
(i.e., TCP or UDP).

410
Multiprotocol Label Switching

411
 MPLS

MPLS is designed to
bring the speed of OSI layer 2, the
link/switching layer, up to layer 3, the
network protocol layer.

Each packet is assigned a routing label

based upon several
factors including the packet priority and the
ultimate packet destination.

MPLS operates at an OSI Model layer that is generally considered to lie

between traditional definitions of Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) and Layer 3
(Network Layer), and thus is often referred to as a "Layer 2.5" protocol

412
 MPLS header

• A 20-bit label value. A label with the value of 1 represents the router alert label.
• 3-bit Traffic Class field for QoS (quality of service) priority (experimental) and
ECN (Explicit Congestion Notification).
• 1-bit bottom of stack flag. If this is set, it signifies that the current label is the
last in the stack.
• 8-bit TTL (time to live) field

413
 Label edge router
A label edge router (LER, also known as edge LSR) is a router that operates at
the edge of an MPLS network and acts as the entry and exit points for the
network. LERs respectively, push an MPLS label onto an incoming packet and
pop it off the outgoing packet. Alternatively,

GSM GSM
E1 E1

LER MPLS network LER

3G ATM 3G ATM

IP Network IP Network
LTE- LTE-
Ethernet MPLS supports the transport of a wide range of layer 2 Ethernet
and layer 3 services, including TDM,
ATM, and IP, and is thus able to support the migration
from from legacy (TDM and ATM) to IP based RANs

414
 Label switch router (LSR)
A MPLS router that performs routing based only on the label is called a label
switch router (LSR)

As your corporate data

enters the carrier
network, a label is
GSM attached to each
MPLS network packet.
E1
This label uniquely
identifies your Virtual
LER
Label switch router LER Private Network (VPN)
3G ATM in a shared
infrastructure and keeps
it private. 

Upon reaching its

IP Network
LTE- destination, the label is
Ethernet removed, returning the
data packet to its
original state. 415
 Packet-forwarding decisions

• In an MPLS network, data packets are assigned labels.

• Packet-forwarding decisions are made solely on the contents of this

label, without the need to examine the packet itself.

• This allows one to create end-to-end circuits across any type of

transport medium, using any protocol.

416
 Label Stack
•MPLS IP packets can carry anywhere from 1, 2, 3,  .  .  .  .
up to “m” labels,
•Only the top of the stack is accessible to the router
•The bottom label is Label 1, and the top label is Label m
•Label 1 refers to the last router in the path, and Label 2
bottom label Label 1 refers to the next hop router
•The “S” bit is set to 1 for the bottom label, and to 0 for all
other labels

417
 Label Stack
As the IP packet moves through the route:
 
1)      The ingress PE router adds two labels to the packet, defining two LSP’s – one
to the final PE router, and one to the next hop router
2)      The next hop router receives the packet, pops Label 2 and adds a new Label 2
that refers to the next hop router – this repeats until the final PE router is reached
3)      the final router is a PE router, which pops both Label 2 and then Label 1, and
sends the pure IP packet out it’s egress port and to the CE router

ingress

1.adds two labels

final PE router, and
one to the next hop router
418
 Label Stack
When the last label is popped from a packet's label stack (resulting in the stack being
emptied), further processing of the packet is based on the packet's network layer
header.
The LSR which pops the last label off the
TCP UDP stack must therefore be able to identify the
TCP UDP
packet's network layer protocol.   Since the
ICMP label itself says nothing of the protocol, the ICMP
IPv4 Layer 3 PE router must maintain a cross-reference IPv4 Layer 3
of the label number vs network layer
ARP
protocol. ARP
Ethernet Layer 2   Ethernet Layer 2
SDH Layer 1 SDH Layer 1

ingress
MPLS Network

419
 Label Stack
When a router in an MPLS network receives an unlabeled
packet, it reverts to ordinary IP routing protocols.
 

TCP UDP TCP UDP

ICMP ICMP
IPv4 Layer 3 IPv4 Layer 3

ARP NO LABEL ARP

Ethernet Layer 2 Ethernet Layer 2
DATA
SDH Layer 1 SDH Layer 1

ingress
MPLS Network

420
 Summary

LER -push an MPLS label onto an incoming packet and pop it off the
outgoing packet

label edge routers (LER) label edge routers (LER)

Labels are distributed

between LERs and
LSRs using the “Label Routers that perform routing based only on
Distribution Protocol” the label are called label switch routers
(LSR).

421