2

Scientific
Methods in
Psychology

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 Psychological Science

Psychology differs from other scientific fields.

One way is its history.

• Other sciences began gradually from the work of amateurs.
• Psychology, in contrast, began as a deliberate attempt to
start a new science.

Another issue is ethics.

• Psychologists dealing with people have stringent limits.

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 Gathering Evidence

A scientific study goes through the

following sequence of steps:

Hypothesis – a
clear predictive Method Results Interpretation
statement

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A hypothesis can start with observations.

• A hypothesis can also be based on a more general statement, such as “children

tend to imitate the behavior they see.”
• Could be tested in many ways. Because any method has strengths and
weaknesses, researchers vary their methods. If studies using different methods all
point to the same conclusion, we gradually increase our confidence in the
conclusion.

Fundamental to any research is measuring the outcome. It is important for

an investigator to set clear rules about measurements.
• After making the measurements, the investigator determines whether the results
are impressive enough to call for an explanation or whether the apparent trends
might have been due to chance.

Researchers’ final task is to consider what the results mean. If the results
contradict the hypothesis, researchers should abandon or modify the
original hypothesis.
• If the results match the prediction, investigators gain confidence in the hypothesis,
but they also should consider other hypotheses that fit the results.

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 Replicability

Replicable • data that anyone can obtain, at least

approximately, by following the same
results procedures

• procedure of taking the results of many

Meta- experiments, weighting each one in
proportion to the number of participants,
analysis and determining the overall average effect

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 Evaluating Scientific Theories

Theory – an explanation or model that fits many

observations and makes accurate predictions

If replicable data support some hypothesis, eventually

researchers propose a theory.

A scientific theory is more than a guess.

A good theory starts with as few assumptions as

possible and leads to many correct predictions. In that
way, it reduces the amount of information we must
remember.
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General Research Principles

Problems faced by psychological researchers:

Sampling Behavior of participants

People who know they are

A group of people being in a research study often
studied might be unusual in behave differently just
some way. because they are being
observed.
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 Operational Definitions
a definition that specifies the
operations (or procedures)
used to produce or measure
something, ordinarily a way
to give it a numerical value

Operational Operational definition

definition of friendliness?

Operational definition
of aggressive?

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 Table 2.1 Types of Samples

Sample Individuals Included Advantages and Disadvantages

Convenience Anyone who is available Easiest to get, but results may not
sample generalize to the whole population

Representative Same percentage of Results probably similar to whole

sample male/female, white/black, population, although sample may be
etc., as the whole representative in some ways but not
population others
Random sample Everyone in population has Difficult to get this kind of sample,
same chance of being but it is the best suited for
chosen generalizing to the whole population

Cross-cultural People from different Difficulties include language barriers,

sample cultures cooperation problems, etc., but
essential for studying many issues

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 Figure 2.6

► Figure 2.6 In a naturalistic study, observers record the behavior in a natural setting. Here
noted biologist Jane Goodall records her observations on chimpanzees. By patiently staying
with the chimps, Goodall gradually won their trust and learned to recognize individual
animals.
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 Case Histories

Case history

a thorough description of someone, including

abilities and disabilities, medical condition, life
history, unusual experiences, and whatever else
seems relevant

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 Surveys
Survey
• a study of the prevalence of certain beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors
based on people’s responses to specific questions

Getting a random or representative sample is especially

important with surveys.

The seriousness of those being interviewed and the wording

of questions affect survey results.
• Surveyor bias happens when an organization words the questions of a
survey to encourage the answers they hope to receive.

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 Correlational Studies

Correlation – a measure of the A variable is anything measurable that

relationship between two differs among individuals, such as age,
variables years of education, or reading speed.

The Correlation Coefficient

Correlation coefficient – a mathematical estimate of the

relationship between two variables

Scatter plot – graph in which each dot represents a given

individual, with one measurement for that individual on the x-axis
(horizontal) and another measurement on the y-axis (vertical)

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 Correlational Studies
• Illusory correlation – an apparent
relationship based on casual observations of
Illusory unrelated or weakly related events
Correlation • Sometimes people think they see a
correlation that doesn’t really exist. People
s see what they expect to see (e.g., sugar
and activity levels)

• A correlation indicates how strongly two

Correlation ≠ variables are related to each other.
Causation • It does not tell us why they are related.

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 Experiments
Experiment – a study in which the investigator manipulates at least one variable
while measuring at least one other variable

• Independent variable – the item that an experimenter changes or controls

• Dependent variable – the item that an experimenter measures to determine the outcome

Experimental group – the group that receives the treatment that an experiment
is designed to test

Control group – a set of individuals treated in the same way as the experimental
group except for the procedure that the experiment is designed to test

Random assignment – a chance procedure, such as drawing names out of a hat,

to make sure that all participants have the same probability of being assigned to a
given group

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Table 2.2 Comparison of Five Methods of Research
Observational Studies
Case Study Detailed description of single individual; suitable for
studying rare conditions
Naturalistic Observation Description of behavior under natural conditions
Survey Study of attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors based on
answers to questions
Correlation Description of the relationship between two variables
that the investigator measures but does not control;
determines whether two variables are closely related
but does not address questions of cause and effect

Experiment
Determination of the effect of a variable controlled by the investigator on some
other variable that is measured; the only method that can inform us about cause
and effect
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Reducing the Influence of Expectations

Experimenter Bias and Blind Studies

• Experimenter bias – the tendency of an observer (unintentionally, as a

rule) to misperceive the results
• Blind observer – someone who records data without knowing the
researcher’s predictions
• Single-blind study – procedure in which either the observer or the
participants are unaware of which participants received which
treatment
• Double-blind study – research in which both the observer and the
participants are unaware of which participants received which
treatment

Demand Characteristics

• Demand characteristics – cues that tell participants what is expected

of them and what the experimenter hopes to find

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 Problems with a Before-and-After
Study

Researchers give children They provide therapy for

language training and find patients with depression
that their language skills and find that many
improve over the next become gradually less
few months depressed.

A before-and-after study
often leads to results that
are hard to interpret.
• It is better to compare the
results for different groups.

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 Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics – mathematical summaries
of results

Three ways of representing the central score:

• Mean – the sum of all the scores divided by the total
number of scores
• Median – middle score in a list of scores arranged from
highest to lowest
• Mode – the score that occurs most frequently

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 Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics – statements about a large

population based on an inference from a small
sample

Certain kinds of statistical tests determine the

probability that purely chance variation would
achieve a difference as large as the one observed.
• The result is summarized by a p (as in probability) value.
• The smaller the p value, the more impressive the results.

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 Inferential Statistics
The usual agreement is that, if p is less than 0.05, researchers
consider the results statistically significant or statistically reliable.

Statistically significant Statistical significance depends on three

(or statistically reliable) factors:
results – results that
chance alone would be Size of the difference between
unlikely to produce the groups

Number of research
participants in each group

Amount of variation among

individuals within each group
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Replicability Issues

Because researchers
They seldom publish
generally publish only
the unimpressive
the results that look
results
impressive.

Of all the published

We should be
results, some of them
skeptical until it has
are probably
been replicated
accidental findings.

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 Ethical Concerns with Humans

Research on human participants should not

proceed until the participants have given their
informed consent.
• Informed consent – a statement that a participant has been
told what to expect and agrees to continue
• Special problem  children, mental retardation  guardian.

Psychologists try to minimize risk to their

participants, but they sometimes face difficult
ethical decisions, such as temporary deception.
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Ethical Concerns with Nonhumans

Animal
Researchers use nonhumans in the following research is
situations: controversial
.

If they want to
study behavior
If they want to
continuously
control aspects If the research Animals cannot
over weeks or
of life that poses health give informed
months (longer
people will not risks consent.
than people are
let them control
willing to
participate)

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