Reproduction

Objectives
1. Compare sexual and asexual reproduction
2. Describe the structure and function of the reproductive systems in humans
3. Describe the menstrual cycle
4. Explain the roles of follicle stimulating hormone, oestrogen, luteinizing hormone and
progesterone and the effect of pregnancy on the menstrual cycle.
5. Outline the mechanism for bringing gametes together, their fusion and the development
of the embryo in humans
6. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various methods of birth control
7. Discuss the transmission and control of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS) and gonorrhoea
8. Relate the parts of petals, sepals, anther, filament, stigma, style, ovary, ovules, embryo
sac, micropyle and carpel to their functions
9. Compare the structure of an insect pollinated flower and a wind pollinated flower
10. Distinguish between the processes of pollination and fertilisation
11. Explain how fruit and seed formation occur after fertilization
12. Describe fruit structure including adaptations for fruit and seed dispersal.
Reproduction
►Feature of living things
►Essential for the continuation of a
species.
Animals and Plants
►Reproduce by two means: asexual and
sexual.
Humans
►Only sexual reproduction.
Asexual VS Sexual

► Asexual reproduction is the production of an gentically

identical offspring, it involves one organism
► No gametes involved

► Sexual reproduction is the production of a genetically

different offspring, it involves two organisms.
► Gametes involved
Asexual Reproduction in Plants
Asexual Reproduction in Plants
Human Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction
►Involves the fusion of gametes from two different
organisms; fertilization of the female gamete by the
male.
►Gametes are haploid and when they fuse the diploid
condition is established (zygote).
►In humans, gametes are produced by gonads (testes
in males and ovaries in females).
Part 1:
The Male Reproductive system:
Structure and function
The male reproductive system
Sexual reproduction is the means by which humans produce their offspring.
Humans are perhaps unique in that sexual intercourse is not only an act of
potential reproduction but also gives pleasure.
The male organs of the reproductive system are structured to produce,
temporarily store and periodically release (ejaculate) male gametes called
spermatozoa (sperm, for short!).
The male reproductive system

Some organs are visible from outside the body, and

some are contained inside the abdominal cavity.
The organs only mature and become functional
when puberty starts.
The diagrams in the following slides illustrate the male
reproductive system. An accessory gland is labeled on the
next slide.
The male reproductive system

http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/LifeScience/GeneralBiology/Physiology/Reproduct
iveSystem/HumanReproduction/malerepro_1.gif
Male reproductive organs (Side
view)

http://www.web-
books.com/eLibrary/Medicine/Physiology/Reproductive/re
 Male Reproductive System
► Organs specialized for the production and delivery of sperm.

► Consists of a system of tubes that produce and convey sperms

from the testes to penis.
► Scrotum contains Testis - The location of the
testes is significant as the sperms need to be
stored below the average body temperature.
►
►which contains seminiferous tubules
►which is connected to epididymis
►which is connected to vas deferens
►which leaves testis & is connected to
seminal vesicle
►which is connected to urethra
►which runs through penis.
 Male Reproductive system 21

Testis
► Sperm-producing organ of the body.
► Situated outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotum.

►The scrotum maintains the testes at a 3 0C

below body temperature.
 Male Reproductive system 22

Testis
► Sperm-producing organ of the body.
► Situated outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotum.

►The scrotum maintains the testes at a 3 0C

below body temperature.
 Male Reproductive system 23

Testes Internal structure

►Testes contain
numerous coiled
Seminiferous tubules,
Epididymis and Vas
deferens.
Male Reproductive system
24

Functions of part of testis

►Seminiferous tubules produces

sperm
►Epididymis receives immature
sperm from seminiferous tubule,
stores and matures the sperm.
►Vas deferens receives mature sperm
which it conveys to the urethra within
the penis.
 Male reproductive system 25

Functions
►In urethra sperm is mixed with secretions
from
► Seminal vesicle (alkaline),
► Prostate gland (alkaline)
► Cowper’s gland (clear, lubricating mucous).
►to produce semen

Sperm + secretions = semen.

►Urethra transports semen to the exterior
via the penis.
Male reproductive system 26

►Penis consists of spongy, erectile tissue.

►functions to deposit sperm into the vagina
(internal fertilization in mammals).
Testosterone

► You no doubt remember that you learnt about the endocrine

system?
Which endocrine gland produces the hormone testosterone?
► Yes, the testes.
► Let’s review the function of testosterone.
The role of testosterone
► Testosterone is known as the ‘male hormone’.
► It is produced by the testes.
► The testes are stimulated into action by Follicle Stimulating Hormone
(FSH) produced by the pituitary gland.
► This happens even before birth.
► Testosterone is produced in even larger quantities as soon as a male hits
puberty.
The role of testosterone cont’d

► Testosterone controls the development of secondary sexual

characteristics.
► What are secondary sexual characteristics?
► These are the physical and emotional characteristics that
distinguishes a male from a female.
► Do you now realize why testosterone is called the male
hormone?
Male secondary sexual
characteristics
► Let’s look at these visible secondary sexual characteristics.
Most are obvious in males around you, so you should be
able to state them correctly.
► Go through the following slides to see if you were correct.
Male secondary sexual
characteristics cont’d
► An early sign is that deepening of the voice starts, but the
voice frequently goes back to being high-pitched or
‘breaks’.
► It becomes possible to ejaculate semen, and this frequently
occurs as ‘wet dreams’.
► Let’s look at some other characteristics.
 Growth of facial hair starts at puberty.

http://i.ehow.com/im
ages/GlobalPhoto/
Articles/5471404/39
0269-main_Full.jpg

The growth of facial hair is due to the action of testosterone.

This hair tends to be much coarser than hair on the head.
 Chest and underarm or axillary hairs grow.

http://static.howstuffw
orks.com/gif/human-
body-hair-2.jpg

This hair growth is also due to the action of testosterone.

 http://www.healthofchildren.com/images/gech_0001_0003_0_img0221.jpg

Pubic hair grows.

Growth of
penis and testes
occurs.

Growth of pubic hair and enlargement of the genitals is

caused by the action of testosterone
Broadening of the shoulders and development of muscles increase as a boy becomes
a man.

http://www.abpischoo
ls.org.uk/res/coReso
urceImport/modules/
.

hormones/en-images
/male.jpg
Importance of secondary
sexual characteristics
►The testes enlarge as sperm production
starts.
►The penis also enlarges to facilitate
sexual intercourse during copulation in
which spermatozoa in the semen are
ejaculated into the female’s vagina.
To Think About!

►No doubt young women would agree

that all these new secondary
characteristics make males more
attractive! So, these characteristics
attract potential partners to ensure
sexual reproduction and the diversity
that accompanies the production of
offspring arising from that activity.
 To Think About!

►Remember however, that these new

characteristics will remain for a long
time and are common among all males,
so…. there is no need to rush into
finding a partner and beginning to
‘have sex’!
►Go have a talk with a trusted relative,
counsellor or your parent/guardian
about the pros and cons of ‘having sex’
at your age.
►Remember… if you ‘have sex’ even
once, you could yourself become a
parent or contract a disease e.g.
HIV/AIDS.
Are you ready for either of those?
Part 2:
The Female Reproductive System
►Structure and function
Functions of the adult Female
Reproductive System
► Produce a mature egg each month, starting at puberty.
► Facilitate the deposit of spermatozoa and their transit to meet the egg.
► Prepare for and accommodate the implant of a fertilized egg, and its complex
development over roughly nine months.
► Give birth to a new human being.
What an absolutely amazing system!
The female reproductive system
► Each part is so structured to carry out those specific functions and all the
parts work together to ensure that a female can produce offspring to
continue the species.
► Because of its important function, care must be taken to practice proper
hygiene, to take measures to prevent STDs and to have a diet that will keep
the entire body healthy.
► The diagrams in the following slides illustrate the female reproductive
system.
 Location and external parts of the
female reproductive system

http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/LifeScience/GeneralBiology/Physiology/ReproductiveSystem/HumanRepro
duction/femalerepro_1.gif
Female reproductive system - Front view

http://www.glogster.com/media/1/4/7/18/4071820.jpg
Female reproductive system - Side view

http://www.tqnyc.org/2006/NYC063547//images/femalereproductivesystem.jpg
 Oviduct 47

► Fallopian tube (oviduct)

►Muscular tube approximately 2cm long;
►The lumen is lined with ciliated epithelium
►Peristaltic movements and cilia aid the
movement of the ova (egg).
►Conveys female gametes (ova plural, ovum
singular) from the ovary to the uterus.
Uterus
48

Uterus - thick-walled hollow, pear-shaped

organ
►Approximately 7cm long and 5cm wide.
►Has three layers: outer serosa, the middle
myometrium and the inner endometrium.
►Cavity has ability to extend greatly during
pregnancy.
►Has the cervix at the lower entrance.
 Cervix & Vagina 49

Cervix - powerful sphincter muscle

►separates uterus from vagina.
►protects uterus

Vagina - muscular tube approx. 9cm long

►leads from cervix to exterior
►accommodates sperm deposits.
Female Secondary Sexual
Characteristics
► Having already explored the endocrine system, you know that
females have an equivalent hormone to testosterone.
► This hormone is oestrogen.
► It also controls development of secondary sexual
characteristics.
Think about what happened in what you observed in a female
you know /at home, then list the characteristics.
Secondary sexual
characteristics in females
Here’s a summary of what you should have:
► Broadening and curving of hips
► Enlargement of breasts
► Enlargement of reproductive organs
► Growth of underarm and pubic hair
► Menstruation begins
All will not appear at the same time for all females since the age of puberty
varies.
All the changes
in the diagrams
are due to
Oestrogen.

http://www.abpischools.org.
uk/res/coResourceImport/m
odules/hormones/en-images
/female.jpg
Importance of secondary
sexual characteristics
These changes ensure the continuation of the species.
► Menstruation occurs because the reproductive system is now functioning;
it shows that an egg was produced each month but was not fertilized.
► The breasts enlarge to enable milk production for possibly nursing a baby.
► The hips enlarge to facilitate child bearing.
 Some Reproductive hormones 55

and where secretes them

Male Hormone list Female Hormone list

1. GnRH- gonadotrophin releasing 1. GnRH- gonadotrophin releasing hormone

hormone (Hypothalamus) (Hypothalamus)

2. FSH- Follicle stimulating hormone 2. FSH- Follicle stimulating hormone

(Pituitary) (Pituitary)

3. Testosterone (Testes) 3. LH (Pituitary)

4. Oestrogen (Ovary)
5. Progesterone (Ovary and Corpus luteum)
 The Menstrual Cycle
Females are saying…. I just feel bloated
and so tired
when my periods
Mummy.. remember come!
to buy pads for me,
OKay?
I hope I Oh Thank God! That
don’t get means I’m not
headaches pregnant! Jerry and I
and vomit just not ready for a
this month! second child now.
The Menstrual Cycle
► Normal, healthy females such as members of this class should be ‘having a
period’ each month. What is it? Why does it happen?
► A ‘period’ is the shedding of the lining or endometrium of the uterus
wall.
► It happens because fertilization and subsequent pregnancy did not
occur.
► Having a period is part of a cycle which is controlled by several hormones.
 Hormonal control-Activities in the 59

Ovary
►GnRH from the hypothalamus stimulates the
anterior pituitary to secrete FSH into the blood.
►FSH stimulates the development and maturation of
one follicle in the ovary.
►The wall of the follicle secretes oestrogen in
increasing amounts as the follicle grows.
 Hormonal control- 60

Activities in Uterus
►Oestrogen targets the uterine wall – causing
the endometrium to repair and thicken in
preparation for the possible implantation of an
embryo.
►As oestrogen increases, it stimulates the
anterior pituitary to produce LH.
 Hormonal control-Events in Uterus 61

►At about 14 days into the cycle, the surge in LH

(and oestrogen) brings about ovulation (release
of ovum from the Graafian follicle into the
oviduct).
►After ovulation oestrogen inhibits FSH secretion.
This prevents any more follicles developing .
 Hormonal control 62

Events in Uterus
►The remaining part of the Graafian follicle
under influence of LH develops into corpus
luteum.

►Corpus luteum secretes progesterone.

 Hormonal control 63

►Progesterone from corpus luteum continues

to keep uterine wall ready for implantation of
an embryo.
►Progesterone inhibits FSH and LH
production to prevent more follicle
development and ovulation.
►If fertilization does not occur, the corpus
luteum degenerates to corpus albicans (about
28 days into cycle) and progesterone levels
drop.
 Hormonal control 64

►Decrease progesterone (and oestrogen)

levels causes the endometrium of uterus to
breakdown and be passed out through the
vagina. (Menstruation).

►Menstruation lasts about five days

The menstrual cycle cont’d
►The first day of a female’s period or menses marks
the first day (Day 1) of the menstrual cycle.
►This cycle normally spans between 21 to 28 days.
►Let’s look at the hormones involved and what they
do. They are FSH or Follicle Stimulating Hormone,
LH = Luteinizing Hormone and Progesterone.
The menstrual cycle cont’d

►Starting from day 1 of the cycle, the pituitary gland

secretes FSH.
►This causes a Graafian follicle to develop.
►As the follicle develops in the ovary, the ovary
secretes oestrogen.
►Oestrogen causes the cells of the endometrial wall
to gradually become filled with blood and fluid.
The menstrual cycle cont’d
►At about day 14 another pituitary hormone, LH is
secreted in high concentration.
►LH causes the Graafian follicle to rupture
releasing the egg. This is ovulation.
►The period before ovulation is the Follicular Phase
and includes menstruation.
►The LH also causes the remains of the follicle to be
converted to the corpus luteum or yellow body. This
is now the Luteal Phase
The menstrual cycle cont’d
►The corpus luteum secretes the hormone
progesterone.
►Progesterone maintains the thickness of the lining of
the uterus (in case of fertilization).
►Have you ever heard of ‘pregnancy hormone’? It is
progesterone.
 Graph showing the relationship between hormone
concentration and endometrial thickness

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 The menstrual cycle cont’d
►Progesterone also causes the breasts to enlarge and
become tender.
►It causes water retention which is responsible for the
bloating associated with periods.
►In addition, the female might experience various
changes such as: cravings for specific foods, fatigue,
headaches, nausea, sensitivity and she might become
easily emotional.
The menstrual cycle cont’d
►The uterus wall is thickened in
preparation for a possible embryo to be
embedded and for pregnancy to result.
►The egg can live for just about 24 hours
after ovulation.
►If no fertilization occurs, the egg dies.
The menstrual cycle cont’d

►If there is no pregnancy, the

progesterone level falls and the uterus
wall breaks down and passes out of the
vagina as ‘a period’ or the menses, with
small clumps of the endometrial lining
and blood.
The hormone progesterone is also
found in contraceptive pills?
►What effect do you think this will
have?
 Fertilization
► http://www.tutorvista.com/content/science/science-ii/reproduction/fertilisation.php
To Think About

Now that you have been reintroduced to the hormones that

control the menstrual cycle, go back to the lessons you did
already on hormones and go through them again to make
sure you fully understand the many ways that hormones
influence growth and development.
 SPERM CELL

Head contains enzymes & nucleus

Designed to Fertilise eggs.

Found in the Testes

A sperm is small and has a long
tail that provides movement so it
can swim and find an egg cell.
Tail
The head contains enzymes
which allow it to digest into an
egg cell and join with it.
Sperm Structure 78
►Head – almost filled with a large haploid nucleus
►Nucleus has a thin membrane-enclosed cap
called acrosome.
►Acrosome contains hydrolytic enzymes and is
important in fertilization.
►Neck, middle piece and tail concerned with
propulsion.
Sperm Structure 79

►Middle piece has densely packed

mitochondria that releases energy for
movement of the sperm.
 EGG (OVUM) CELL

Cytoplasm containing yolk � Designed to be Fertilised.

� Found in the Ovaries.

� An egg cell is large and

bulky.

� Contains yolk which

Layer of jelly provides a large food store
Nucleus
for the new cell being
formed.
 The egg cell 81

►Does not propel itself

►Is larger than male gamete; largest cell in the body;
diameter approx. 140 μm; just visible with the naked
eye.
►Has a large haploid nucleus surrounded by a dense
cytoplasm containing the usual cell organelles.
Leading up to Fertilization
►Perhaps you might be wondering: ‘How does an egg
become fertilized?’
►Let’s look at the natural method of fertilization.
►During sexual arousal, the penis becomes erect. This
facilitates intercourse, in which the erect penis is
inserted into the vagina.
►Stimulation of the penis from rhythmic movements
during intercourse causes ejaculation.
Fertilization
► Ejaculation causes millions of sperms in semen to be released
into the vagina.
► Once released, sperm propel themselves by the tail; assisted by
contractions of the uterus and oviduct (fallopian tube).
►The thick mucus which normally block the cervix becomes
thinner in first part of the menstrual cycle.
► It takes 4-8 hours for sperm to reach the oviducts.
 Fertilization 85

►When the head of the sperm reaches the oocyte,

the cell surface membrane next to the acrosome
and the membrane of the acrosome rupture so
Hydrolytic enzymes are released.

Follicle cells
Fertilization 86

►Hydrolytic enzymes soften the follicle cells

allowing the sperm to pass through.
►The zona pellucida (thick jelly coat surrounding
the ovum) has special receptors to which the
sperm head binds.
►Digestive enzymes make a path through the
zona pellucida (thick jelly coat surrounding the
ovum) to the surface of the oocyte.
Fertilization 87

►After the sperm has penetrated, the zona

pellucida thickens to form a ‘fertilisation
membrane’ which prevents the entry of
further sperm.
►Then fusion of the two nuclei (of egg and
sperm) occurs (fertilization).
 Fertilization 88

►Fertilization usually occurs about a third

of the way along the oviduct.
►Successful fertilization leads to
conception.
►The zygote now travels to the uterus
where it becomes implanted .
Illustration of the steps involved in fertilization.
Fertilization cont’d
►A zygote is formed from fertilization.
What is the chromosome number of the zygote?
►Yes! The zygote is diploid.
This zygote will grow into an embryo. Which
nuclear division do you think is involved?
►Correct again -- mitosis.
Twins and Multiples
►Sometimes more that one egg matures and ovulates,
and they may be fertilized separately. This can result
in fraternal twins or fraternal multiples who can be
either same sex or different-sex children.
►If the fertilized egg separates as it is undergoing its
early divisions, identical twins and identical
multiples could result.
Identical twins/multiples are always the same sex.
Fertilization and
Implantation
► As the zygote divides by mitosis an embryo is
formed.
► As it divides, the ball of cells moves down the
Fallopian tube into the uterus.
Now think back to the menstrual cycle. Describe
how you would expect the endometrium to be.
Give a reason for your answer.
Fertilization and implantation cont’d

►Yes…You are correct again! The endometrial wall is

thickened with blood due to the action of oestrogen
secreted as the follicle developed. Progesterone from the
corpus luteum is also responsible.
►The embryo sinks and becomes embedded in this nice soft
bed in the endometrial wall.
This is implantation.
Look carefully at the next slide that show it.
 Fertilization and implantation cont’d

http://images.google.com.jm/imgres?
imgurl=http://www.mayoclinic.com/images/image_popup/r7_fertilization.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/medical/IM02017&usg=__qhGj4Tcts6xssrDQn_2p
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Summary
► Sexual reproduction is the production of offspring from two parents. It
involves:
1. Meiosis - the special cell division that makes haploid gametes (eggs and
sperms).
2. Ovulation – release of an egg from the ovary.
3. Sexual intercourse with Ejaculation of sperms.
4. Fertilisation - fusion of two haploid gametes (an egg and a sperm) to form a
diploid zygote which develops into an embryo.
5. Implantation of the embryo in the uterus.
6. Pregnancy/Gestation followed by Birth.
 Pregnancy
and Birth

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/science/science-ii/reproduction/fertilisation.ph
p
Pregnancy
► Pregnancy starts
after fertilization
occurs when the new
embryo implants
itself in the lining
of the uterus wall
and begins to
develop.
Pregnancy cont’d
►I am sure you have been associated with
pregnant persons.
So, what are the changes that occur during
pregnancy?
►No doubt you are thinking of: swelling of
feet… nose/face looking fat… abdomen
getting larger…
But, what else happens?
Some changes during
pregnancy
►Nausea and vomiting usually occur, due to the increase
in progesterone levels. They are among the first
changes that occur in pregnancy.
►The menses cease.
►There may be lethargy/tiredness.
►Breasts and abdomen begin to enlarge.
►There may be mood swings and food cravings or food
rejections.
Pregnancy cont’d

► Many changes also

take place in the
embryo! Many
structures can be
recognized by 6 weeks.
► The foetus is attached
to the placenta by the
umbilical cord.

http://www.mydr.com.au/babies-pregnancy/
baby-development-in-the-womb
Pregnancy changes cont’d
► But what causes these changes?
► Yes, hormones and in particular, the ‘pregnancy hormone’ which is
progesterone.
► Where does the progesterone come from?
► You would remember that the corpus luteum secretes progesterone.
► However, the majority of the progesterone secreted during pregnancy is
not done by the corpus luteum.
Pregnancy changes cont’d

►After implantation, some of the dividing cells

form fingerlike projections that dig into the
endometrium of the uterine wall.
►These fingerlike projections along with the
mother’s tissue that surrounds them form the
placenta.
►The placenta performs several roles including an
endocrine one; it secretes progesterone.
Pregnancy changes cont’d
►The placenta facilitates the exchange of
material between the mother and foetus.
►Nutrients and oxygen diffuse from the
mother to the foetus via the umbilical cord;
waste from the foetus diffuses in the opposite
direction.
►The placenta is also a barrier to some
pathogens and harmful materials.
The placenta 105

► Functions
1. facilitate exchange of products
between mother and foetus,
2. produce hormones
3. act as a protective barrier
 Placenta 106

►Deoxygenated blood from the foetus is pumped

through two umbilical arteries.
►Substances diffuse from the blood spaces and
into the capillaries and return to the foetus in
the umbilical vein.
►NB. Foetal and maternal blood do not mix
directly. These are a part of the placenta which
is connected to the foetus by the umbilical cord.
The placenta 10
7
.
The placenta 108

► Functions
1. facilitate exchange of products
between mother and foetus,
2. produce hormones
3. act as a protective barrier
 Functions of placenta - Exchange 109

1. Products exchanged between mother

& foetus
a. Water – by osmosis.

b. Respiratory gases – O2 by diffusion.

Foetal hemoglobin has higher affinity for O2 than adult
haemoglobin. CO2 diffuses opposite to O2.

c. Nutrients – e.g., glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol,

vitamins. They utilize diffusion, facilitated diffusion and active
transport.
Functions of placenta -Exchange 110

Products exchanged between mother & foetus

d. Excretory products – Nitrogenous
waste such as urea diffuses into the
mother’s blood and is removed by her
kidneys.
e. Antibodies – cross from mother to
foetus. Temporary protection is gained.
This is called passive immunity.
 Functions of placenta - Hormone

2. Hormone production

a. Placenta helps to maintain the corpus luteum by

producing progesterone to keep the uterus
endometrium thick for three months.

b. After the corpus luteum declines the placenta

also takes over secretion of oestrogen &
progesterone.
Functions of placenta - Protection

3. Protection of foetus
►Pathogens are barred
Does not protect against

►Small viruses; e.g., HIV.

►Other harmful substances that can affect the development
of the foetus.
►Toxins
►Drugs e.g. alcohol, crack/cocaine, heroin,
►Nicotine from cigarette smoking
►Rhesus antibodies
Pregnancy changes cont’d
►So…. back to the pregnancy changes.
Can you suggest the importance of the changes in the
mother’s body that occur during pregnancy? Click
Check for the answer:
► (The breasts enlarge as the mammary glands expand
to facilitate milk production.

► The uterine wall actually grows new cells so that it

can enlarge to hold the foetus.
continued…
Pregnancy cont’d

Note enlarged breast, abdomen and uterus, also

the placenta and umbilical cord attached to
foetus
Pregnancy changes cont’d

►The high levels of progesterone inhibit the

production of FSH and LH.
►This ensures that no more eggs are released from
the ovaries, so the menses stop temporarily during
pregnancy.
►The placenta continues to support the foetus
throughout gestation.
►The abdomen expands to facilitate the growth of
the foetus.)
Pregnancy cont’d
http://www.mydr.com.au/babies-pregnancy/baby-s-development-in-the-womb

What is the function of amniotic fluid?

Pregnancy cont’d

► Pregnancy normally
ends with labour and
birth.
► The foetus changes its
position so that during
birth the head will emerge
first (in normal births!).

http://www.mydr.com.au/babies-pregnancy/baby-
development-in-the-womb
Birth Control
• Birth control, also known as contraception, is any
practice that prevents pregnancy.

• Birth control methods may work in a number of

different ways but all prevents with the exception of
IUD.
Types of Birth Control

• There are four types of birth control.

• These are natural, barrier, hormonal

and surgical.

• https://
www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/
birth-control
Natural

• This prevents the egg and the sperm

from meeting by avoiding sex, not
ejaculating inside the vagina or using
the menstrual cycle.

• Methods includes abstinence,

withdrawal and rhythm (safe day)
method.
Natural

• Abstinence – Not have sex. This is 100% effective

• Withdrawal method – The pulling out of penis from

vagina before ejaculation. This is highly ineffective as
there can be pre-ejaculation which can cause pregnancy

• Rhythm (safe day) method – This allow sex and

ejaculation a few days between the menstruation and
ovulation. There is no sex 4 days before the ovulation
and 4 days after. This is highly ineffective as different
females have different length cycles which can change
at any given time.
 Barrier
• This involve preventing the sperm from meeting with the
sperm

• This is may be placed over the penis, inside the vagina or

over cervix.

• These physically blocks the sperm from entering uterus.

• Examples are condoms (male and female) and diaphragms

 Hormonal
• This prevents pregnancy by interfering with the hormone
levels in females.

• These are in the form of pills, injections, implants and rings

Birth control Pills (Contraceptive
pills) How does the pill work?

►Stops ovulation
►Thins uterine lining
►Thickens cervical mucus
Hormone in Contraceptive Pills-
How does the pill work?
Surgical

• This involves surgery to cut or tie the fallopian tube or

the vas deferens. Cutting is permanent, while tying is
not.

• The cutting of the fallopian tube is called tubal ligation.

• The cutting of the vas deferens is called vascetomy

Websites to visit

► http://www.healthline.com/vpvideo/stages-of-labor

► http://www.healthline.com/vpvideo/normal-birth
REPRODUCTION
Sexual Reproduction in
Plants
Parts of the Flower
Parts of the Flower
Female – pistil/carpel/gynoecium
 Function of Flower Parts

▣ Carpel\Pistil - Female part of the flower. Consisting of the

stigma, style and ovary.
▣ Stigma - Often sticky top of carpel, serves as a receptive
surface for pollen grains.
▣ Style - The stalk of a carpel, between the stigma and the
ovary, through which the pollen tube grows.
▣ Ovary - Enlarged base of the carpel containing the ovule or
ovules. The ovary matures to become a fruit.
▣ Ovule - Located in the ovaries. Carries female gametes.
Ovules become seeds on fertilization.
Male – stamen/androecium
 Function of Flower Parts
▣ Stamen - Male part of the flower, consisting of
the anther and filament, makes pollen grains.
▣ Filament - The stalk of the stamen which bears
the anther.
▣ Anther - The pollen bearing portion of a stamen.
▣ Pollen - Grains containing the male gametes.
Immature male gametophyte with a protective
outer covering.
 Function of Flower Parts
▣Sepal - Leaf-like structures at flower base,
protects young flower bud.
▣ Petal - Located in and above the sepals, often
large and colourful, sometimes scented,
sometimes producing nectar. Often serve to
attract pollinators to the plant.
POLLINATION
 What is Pollination?
▣ Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther to the stigma(on flowers of the same species). There are
two types of pollination:
◼Self-pollination – pollination which take place in
the same flower or between two flowers on the
same plant.
◼Cross-pollination – transfer of pollen grains from
the anther on one flower to the stigma of a flower
on another plant of the same species.
Self pollination
Self pollination
Cross pollination
Cross pollination
Cross pollination
Pollination
 Adaptation to ensure cross-pollination

▣The stamens develop and release their

pollen before the carpels are mature.
The alternative has also been
observed.
▣Plants produce only a male or female
part.
 Adaptation to ensure cross-pollination

▣ Some plants are adapted in certain ways in the

positioning of flower parts to facilitate cross-
pollination.

▣ The nectaries are at the bottom of long petal

tubes and the anther and stigma are positioned
so that the insect has to brush against them in
order to reach the nectaries.
Self pollination vs Cross
pollination
 Mechanisms for pollination

▣ Wind pollination – these flowers are usually

small and inconspicuous. The anthers and the
styles with their feathery stigmas are normally
hanging out of the flower and into the wind.
The pollen grains are very light, smooth and in
large quantities so that the slightest gust can
move them.
 Mechanisms for pollination

▣ Insect pollination – these flowers are usually

large with brightly coloured petals, they secrete
a sugary substance (nectar) and they give off a
scent all in an effort to attract insects. The
anther and stigma are usually found inside the
flowers.
FERTILAZTION
Double fertilization
Fertilization
 Fertilization
▣ The pollen grain lands on the stigma of the style,
and begins to grow a pollen tube down the style
by absorbing the nutrients.
▣ The pollen grain release two male nuclei which
makes its way down the style towards the ovary.
The ovary contains several nuclei, one of which is the

female sex cell.

 Fertilization
▣ The male nuclei enter the ovule through a tiny opening
called the micropyle.
▣ The first male nuclei fuse with the female sex cell to
form an embryo zygote (fertilization).
▣ The second male nucleus fuses with another female
nucleus to form an endosperm zygote (a storage tissue)
which provides energy for the embryo’s growth and
development.
Fertilization
 FRUIT & SEED
DEVELOPMENT
In true fruits, after fertilisation the
ovule forms the seed and the ovary
develops into the fruit.
 Fruit Development
▣ The ovary wall is known as the pericarp and
can be either dry or fleshy.
▣ In a fleshy pericarp, the outer layer (known
as the epicarp) forms a skin.
▣ The two inner layers (known as the mesocarp
and the endocarp) may both be fleshy or the
innermost layer (the endocarp) becomes hard
and woody providing extra protection for the
enclosed seeds.
Fruit Development
FLESHY FRUITS
FLESHY FRUITS
FLESHY FRUIT
FLESHY FRUIT
FLESHY FRUIT
 SEED DISPERSAL
Mechanical, wind, water and animal
 Mechanical Dispersal

▣The pericarp dries out and tension is

produced.
▣When the tension is released the
seeds shoot out and are dispersed.
▣Eg. Include leguminous plants
produce dry fruits called pods.
Mechanical Dispesal
Mechanical Dispesal
Mechanical Dispesal
Mechanical Dispesal
 Wind Dispersal
▣Seeds and fruits are lighter and easily
blown by the wind.
▣They usually have a winged appendage
which increases surface area to volume
ratio.
▣Winged fruit eg. Crow
▣Winged seed eg. Cedar
Wind Dispersal
Wind Dispersal
 Water Dispersal
▣Fruits are light with air spaces in
the mesocarp, which reduces the
density so it can float in sea water.
▣The epicarp is water proof and
leathery, which protects the embryo
during dispersal.
▣Eg. coconunt
Water Dispersal
Water Dispersal
Water Dispersal
 Animal Dispersal
▣Fruits are sometimes dry with bur-like
extensions which attach to the coat or
clothes of animals
▣Which takes them from one place to the
other.
 Animal Dispersal

▣ Fruits usually have a brightly coloured epicarp

which makes it attractive to animals.
▣ Mesocarp is fleshy which animals eat and
throw away or pass out the seeds.
▣ Fruits usually have one seed with a soft testa
and enclosed by a hard endocarp. Some berry is
also dispersed in this way
▣ Eg mango, cherry
Animal Dispersal
Animal Dispersal