BETU 4053

Framing The Problems

 Understanding Ethical Problems

 Ethical Problem- solving techniques

 Understanding Ethical Problems
Ethical theories helps us to understand and solve ethical problems.
 
Ethical theory is a comprehensive perspective on morality that clarifies,
organizes and guide moral reflection. It also provides a framework for
making moral choices and resolving moral dilemmas.
 
There is a large number of ethical theories. This doesn't indicate a weakness
in theoretical understanding of ethics or a fuzziness of ethical thinking.
Rather, it reflects the complexity of ethical problems and the diversity of
approaches to ethical problem solving.
 Understanding Ethical Problems
FIVE (5) Ethical Theories; (provide framework to
decision making)

 1. UTILITARIANISM
 2. RIGHT ETHICS
 3. DUTY/ DEONTOLOGY ETHICS
 4. VIRTUE ETHICS
 5. SELF-REALIZATION ETHICS
 Understanding Ethical Problems
 
UTILITARIANISM
• Finding good action to maximize human well-being.
• Maximizing the well-being of a society as a whole rather than an
individual.
 
eg. building of dams
 
provide drinking water , electricity, flood controls, recreational
opportunities
 
BUT benefits come at the expenses of people (and animals) living in the
areas where it will be flooded. Animals which are probably endangered
species.
 
This theory tries to balance the needs of society with the needs of the
individual, with an emphasis on the most beneficial to the most people.
 Understanding Ethical Problems
 
UTILITARIANISM
Example 1:
Act-utilitarianism apparently permits some actions that we know are patently
immoral. Suppose that stealing a computer form my employer, an old one scheduled
for replacement anyway, benefits me significantly and causes only miniscule harm to
the employer and others. We know that theft is unethical, and hence act-
utilitarianism seems to justify wrongdoing. Rule-utilitarianism express this moral
knowledge by demonstrating the overall goods is promoted when engineers heed the
principle, “Act as faithful agents or trustees of employers”.
 
Example 2:
Suppose company morale would greatly improved if several disliked engineers are
being fired after being blamed for mistakes they did not make. Doing so is unfair,
but the overall good is promoted.
 Understanding Ethical Problems
RIGHT ETHICS
= respect human rights
 
 Human rights;
 life
 privacy
 not to be injured
 receiving benefits through fair and honest exchange
 be informed about the risks and safety of one's surrounding environment or
products etc
 liberty
 livable environment
 pursuit of happiness
 decent human life
 etc
 
 Understanding Ethical Problems
RIGHT ETHICS
there are also special moral right, rights held by particular individuals rather
than by every human being.
 
For example, engineers and their employers have special moral rights that
arise from their respective roles and the contracts they make with each other.
Thus, contracts and other types of promises create special rights.
 
Another example is, when the public purchases products, there is an implicit
(understood/unspoken) contract that the products will be safe and useful.
 
 Understanding Ethical Problems
RIGHT ETHICS

Some rights are absolute, in the sense of being unlimited and having no
justifiable exceptions. For instance, if people purchase hang gliders and then
injure themselves by flying them carelessly or under bad weather conditions,
their rights have not been violated—assuming that advertisements about the
joys of hang gliding did not contain misleading information.
 
But human rights does imply when people are injured or killed by products
whose dangers are not obvious or are deliberately hidden.
 Understanding Ethical Problems
DUTY ETHICS
= respect individual's autonomy
 
• People deserve respect because they are capable of recognizing and
voluntarily responding to moral duty.
• Autonomy = moral self-determination or self-governance, means
having the capacity to govern one’s life in accordance to moral
duties.
• Immorality occurs when we “merely use” others, reducing them to
mere means to our ends, treating them as mere objects to gratify our
needs. Violent acts such as murder, rape and torture are obvious
ways of treating people are mere object serving our purposes.
 Understanding Ethical Problems
DUTY ETHICS
• We also fail to respect persons if we fail to provide support when they are in
desperate need and we can help at little inconvenience to ourselves.
• Of course we need to “use” others : business partners, managers and engineer,
faculty and students, to obtain personal and professional ends. Immorality
involves treating persons as mere means to our goals, rather than as autonomous
agents who have their own goals.
• It is a moral duty to do what is right because it is right, unconditionally and
without special incentives attached. For example, we should be honest because
honesty is required by duty; it is required by our basic duty to respect the
autonomy of others, rather than to deceive and exploit them.
• Golden Rule : Do unto others as you would have them do unto you; or, Do not
do unto others what you would not want them do to you.
 Understanding Ethical Problems
VIRTUE ETHICS
=good character is central to morality
 
Virtue ethics emphasizes character more than rights and rules. Example of virtue;
competence, honesty, courage fairness, loyalty, humility.
In engineering, the most comprehensive virtue is responsible professionalism. This
implies four categories of virtue:
 
1. Public-spirited virtues
 Engineering codes of professional conduct call for beneficence, which is
preventing or removing harm to others and promoting public safety,
health and welfare.
 Sacrificing time, talent and money to their professional societies or local
communities.
 
 Understanding Ethical Problems
VIRTUE ETHICS
2. Proficiency virtues
 Mastery of one’s profession, being well-prepared
 Diligence: alertness to dangers and careful attention to details
 Creativity

3. Teamwork virtues
• Important in enabling professionals to work successfully with other
people.
• Teamwork virtues include collegiality, cooperativeness, loyalty and
respect for legitimate authority.
• Leadership qualities is an important key role within authority-structured
corporations, such as responsible exercise of authority and ability to
motivate others.
 
Understanding Ethical Problems
VIRTUE ETHICS
4. Self-governance virtues
 Necessary in exercising moral responsibility, for example self-
understanding and good moral judgment-what Aristotle called practical
wisdom.
 Also commitment and on putting understanding into action for example,
courage, self-discipline, perseverance, fidelity to commitments, self-
respect and integrity.
 Understanding Ethical Problems
SELF - REALIZATION ETHICS

= moral significance of self-fulfillment

 seeking self-fulfillment
 self identity and meaning are linked to the communities in which we
participate
 self-realization ethics points to the particular commitments that
individuals make in their work, as well as in their professional lives. It
is a central theme of how personal commitments motivate, guide and
give meaning to the work of engineers and other professionals.
 Personal commitments are relevant in many ways to professional life,
they create meaning; thereby they motivate professionalism throughout
long careers.
 Ethical Problem- solving techniques
Example Case
Ben is assigned by his employer, Cartex to work on an improvement to an
ultrasonic range-finding device. This device is find very useful to the
development of new medical technology
While working on the improvement, he gets an idea for a modification of the
equipment that might cause of Benzene Exposure in the work place.
However, Ben has signed an agreement that all inventions he produces on
the job are the property of the company, but does not believe the agreement
applies his situation.
 Ethical Problem- solving techniques
How should we resolve controversial issues related to
engineering ethics?

 Some kind of methodical approach is needed.

 1974: Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) temporary
regulation for limiting benzene amount in any working place (1ppm).
 1980: U.S. Supreme Court relaxed the OSHA limitation (10 ppm,
indicating that OSHA should come up with substantial

“These observations point out the important fact that usually

experience moral disagreement and controversy within a
context of agreement”
Case of benzene Exposure in the workplace
How to formulate our moral beliefs?
Common features of human life include :

• Vulnerability - Humans are susceptible to pain, suffering, unhappinesness, disability,

and untimely death

• Autonomy - Humans to some degree are capable of thinking and making our own
decisions

• Interdependency - Depend on each other to achieve what we want, through

cooperative endeavor and division of labor Others refraining from harming each
other

• Shared expectations and goals - Shared vision and goas, UN and WHO

• Common moral traits - Fair-mindedness, self-respect, compassion

Case of benzene Exposure in the workplace
How to formulate our moral beliefs?

So moral beliefs should include general principles such as not harming others, not to
cheat, keep promises, respect for others, not to interfere with the freedom of others, etc.

But of course, with specific exceptions:

• Telling a lie is bad, but might be acceptable for a certain situation.
• One should be able to provide proper justification or a good cause to do so.

Many engineering codes reflect these values underlined by common morality.

Justification of basing professional ethics issues on
common morality

• Attempting to make judgments based on common moral values shared by

everyone.

• This would eliminate possible bias (some moral values are important only
by people having faith in a certain religion or belief).

• Universalizability and Reversibility

 Universalizability: Whatever is right (or wrong) in one situation is

right (or wrong) in any relevantly similar situation. (it requires us to
be consistent in our thinking)

 Reversibility: Treat others as you would have them treat you (Golden
Rule).
 Ethical Problem- solving techniques
Analyzing a Case :
• To analyze anything, we must gather information relevant to the
solution of the ethical problem.
• We first ask :
- What are the ethical questions?
- What are the facts?

• The facts should be relevant to the specific ethical questions. Do the

facts support the ethical questions?

• What are the resources we might use in framing the ethical

considerations? Moral Belief…. Professional Code..etc..?
 Ethical Problem- solving techniques
Analyzing a Case :
• Issues involved in any ethical problems must first be determined
• the issues can be split into 3 categories
 
• factual
• conceptual
• moral
 Ethical Problem- solving techniques
Factual issues involve what is actually known about a case; what are the facts.
Facts are usually clear-cut, but sometimes facts can be blurry and may be controversial
 
Example :
• abortion-at what point life starts
• global warming-what is the process and how does greenhouse gasses affect the
atmosphere
 
Factual issues can often be resolved through research to help establish the "true" facts,
hence clarifying the situation
 Ethical Problem- solving techniques
Conceptual issues have to do with the meaning or applicability of an idea
Example : defining what constitutes a bribe as opposed to an acceptable gift.
 
The value of the gift is a probably a well-known fact.
BUT, conceptually is the gift meant to influence your decision or it is merely a
nice gesture between friends.
 
Conceptual issues are resolved by agreeing on the meaning of terms and
concepts.
 
Application issues are resolved by agreement as to which moral principles are
pertinent (relevant) and how they should be applied.
Ethical Problem- solving techniques

How to resolve Problems :

• What is the Case Statement?

• Define the Relevant Facts
• Define Factual Issues if any
• Define Conceptual and Application Issues
• Define Moral Issues
• Analyze the case based on the information
you’ve developed
• Can a “Line Drawing” help resolve the issue?