Networks and

Communication
By
Zahra Zahid
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 Client server model

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• Server - a computer program running to serve the requests of

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other programs, the "clients“
• Login

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• Printing
• File sharing

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• Game hosting
• email
• Websites

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• Other web services
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• Client - an application or system that accesses a service made
available by a server
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• Web browser page requests
• Chat systems on mobile phones
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• Online games
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NETWORKING HARDWARE AND

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SOFTWARE

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 Hub/Switch – electronic device (with a number of ports) used in a LAN to link
groups of computers

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 Repeaters (also called amplifiers) – electronic devices that receive signals
and amplify and send them along the network

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 Routers - electronic devices used to ensure messages are sent to their
intended destinations

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 Gateway – consists of hardware and/or software that allows communications
between dissimilar networks
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Bridge – consists of hardware and/or software
that allows communication between two
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similar networks
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HUBS/SWITCHES

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The original Ethernet LANs relied on certain physical
characteristics of the cable carrying the network data

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(usually coaxial cable).  New Ethernet technologies
introduced new cable types that we unable to fulfill the
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original physical requirements.  New devices - hubs -
were introduced to simulate those characteristics.
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Simply put, the hub's major function is to replicate data it

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receives from one device attached to it to all others.

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 REPEATERS

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A common problem in the networking world is that of weakening
electrical signals.  Electrical signals traveling through wires (such as

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copper wires used in most networks), weaken due to the wire's

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electrical resistance.  This effect limits the lengths of the cable that can

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be used.  A repeater will overcome this limit, when there is a need to
connect two computers at a larger distance.
A repeater is connected to two cable segments.  Any electrical signal

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reaching the repeater from one segment, will be amplified and
retransmitted to the other segment.

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An illustration of a repeater at work

The electrical signal entering the repeater at one end is weakened.
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The repeater amplifies the electrical signals and resends the data.
 ROUTERS

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 Routers connect two or more networks and forward
data packets between them.  When data arrives from
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one of the segments, the router decides, according to
it's routing table, to which segment to forward that
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data.
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Networks for Beginners: http://compnetworking.about.com/

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GATEWAY

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 "Gateway" is a term that was once used to refer to a routing device.  Today, in the TCP/IP
world, the term "router" is used to describe such a device.

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The term gateway now refers to special-purpose devices, that perform protocol
conversions.  Gateways implement application layer conversions of information received

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from various protocols.

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Bridge
A bridge is used to connect two LAN segments(Figure 3.8.4). If a

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school has a network for students and another for school
administration, it may be necessary to link the networks together.
Notice that there is no implication of signals being vetted as to their

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right to be transferred across to the other network. It is simply a link

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between the two segments.

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Consider a LAN split into two segments to improve data

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transfer speeds. There is, however, a need for a device on
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segment. The bridge maintains a table showing which
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MAC addresses is connected to each of its ports (Figure
3.8.5) A MAC is a unique address given to a device by the
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manufacturer.
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MODEMS

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An illustration of data sent using a modem and a regular

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telephone line.

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A modem is a device that converts digital data originating from a
terminal or computer, to analog signals used by voice
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communication networks such as the telephone system. At one
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end, modems convert the digital pulses to audible tones and
convert audio tones back to digital pulses at the other.
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The word "Modem" stands for "MOdulator-DEModulator".

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Networks for Beginners: http://compnetworking.about.com/

PHYSICAL MEDIA

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 Twisted-pair cable – consists of two independently insulated wires
twisted around each other (least expensive type of cable—the kind

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that is used in many telephone systems)

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 Coaxial cable – consists of an insulated center wire grounded by a

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shield of braided wire (the primary type of cabling used by the cable
television industry; it is more expensive than twisted pair)
 Fiber-optic cable – contains hundreds of clear fiberglass or plastic

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fibers (threads) (made from thin, flexible glass tubing; bandwidth is
greater, so it can carry more data; it is lighter than metal wires and is
less susceptible to interference; it is fragile and expensive)

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 ISDN line – a special digital telephone line that transmits and receives
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information at very high speeds
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Fuller, Floyd, Computers: Understanding Technology: EMC Paradigm, 2003.

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WIRELESS MEDIA

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 Microwave system – transmits data via high-frequency

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radio signals through the atmosphere

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 Satellite system – receive transmitted signals, amplify
them, and then transmit the signals to the appropriate

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locations
 Cellular technology – uses antennae resembling telephone

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towers to pick up radio signals within a specific area (cell)
 Infrared technology – transmits data as infrared light

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waves from one device to another, providing wireless links
between PCs and peripherals
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Note: The type selected is determined by the type of
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network, the size of the network, and the cost.
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Fuller, Floyd, Computers: Understanding Technology: EMC Paradigm, 2003.

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 Packet Switching

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A method by which the internet works, it features

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delivery of packets of data between devices over

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a shared network

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Packet switching steps

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Data split into chunks (packets)

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Each packet has a from address, to address and payload (data

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chunk)

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If data requires multiple chunks then the order of each packet
is noted

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Packets sent onto the network, moving from router to router

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taking different paths (set by the router). Each packet's journey
time can therefore differ.
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Once packets arrive they are re-ordered
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Message sent from recipient to sender indicating that the

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message has been received

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If no confirmation message, sender transmits data again

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 IP Address

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IP Address Sturcture

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Class A,B and C IP addresses

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in any network, the first and last addresses are special. The

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first address (all 0's) is used to refer to the network itself.

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This is not usable as a destination address but is used in
routing protocols. The last address (all 1's) is called the

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network directed broadcast and can be used to send an IP
packet to all devices in the network.

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A subnet mask is a 32 bit binary number where a binary 1

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indicates a network bit and a binary 0 represents a host bit

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in the corresponding IP address. Thus subnet masks are
always a series of 1s followed by a series of 0s.

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Using Subnet mask

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 Thus given a device with the IP address 192.168.1.1 and the subnet mask
255.255.255.0, calculate the IP network address of the device

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 Home Network

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Take an example of a PC on internal network with an IP address of 192.168.0.101.
1.It generates a web request to a server at address 151.62.31.240.

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2.The packet is generated with source address (SA) 192.168.0.101 and destination

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address (DA) 151.62.31.240
3.It is sent the the edge router because the destination is not on this LAN.

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4.The edge router realises it is going to send this packet out to the Internet and thus

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performs NAT. The source address is swapped for the public address. The

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translation is recorded.
5.The packet now has SA 82.10.250.19 and DA 151.62.31.240 and it heads off to

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the web server.
6.The web server generates the reply and swaps the sources and destination

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addresses.
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7.The packet now has SA 151.62.31.240 and DA 82.10.250.19 and makes it way
back to the router.
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8.The router recalls the translation and swapps the destination address back.
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9.The packet now has SA 151.62.31.240 and DA 192.168.0.101 and is sent back to
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the originating PC.

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Uniform Resource Locator - A character string referring to the
location of an internet resource

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Server Side Scripting

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