PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

Chapter 2, The Atmosphere

Introduction

•The most important property is air density (the “thickness” of air)

Physical Proporties of Air
Static Pressure
 Static Pressure
Static pressure is the result of the weight of the atmosphere pressing down on the air beneath.

10.000 feet 697 hPa / 20,58 inHg

1013 hPa / 29,92 inHg SL

 Temperature

The unit for temperature is °C, or K.

Degrees Celsius (or centigrade) when

measured relative to the freezing point of
water, or Kelvin when measured relative
to absolute zero.

(0°C is equivalent to 273 K).

Air Density

• Mass per unit volume.

• Varies with static pressure, temperature and humidity. So…..

֎ Density decreases if static pressure decreases.

֎ Density decreases if temperature increases.
֎ Density decreases if humidity increases.

P / Tρ = constant ραP/T
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

• Mean or average properties of the atmosphere.

• ICAO standard atmosphere assumes the following mean sea level values:

֎ Temperature 15°C
֎ Pressure 1013,25 hPa
֎ Density 1,225 kg/m³

Temperature lapse rate 2°C / 1.000 ft

up to 36.090 ft (11.000 m) (up to tropopause)
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
Dynamic Pressure (Q)

• Kinetic Energy KE = ½ m V²

V²
Dynamic Pressure (Q)

• Dynamic pressure = ½ ρ V² N/m²

V²

Q = ½ ρ V²
Key Facts

• Total Pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure

So…..

• Dynamic Pressure = Total Pressure – Static Pressure

֎ Temperature
֎ Static Pressure
֎ Humidity

Note: Increasing altitude will decrease air density because the effect of decreasing static
pressure is more dominant than decreasing temperature.
Measuring Dynamic Pressure

• Dynamic Pressure = Total Pressure - Static Pressure

Measuring Dynamic Pressure

• Dynamic Pressure = Total Pressure - Static Pressure

Relationships Between Air Speeds

• Indicated Air Speed (IAS)

• Calibrated Air Speed (CAS) : IAS corrected for ‘position’ OR ‘pressure’ error.

֎ Aircraft’s configuration (flaps and landing gear)

֎ Attitude to the airflow (AoA and sideslip)
֎ Changes in the pressure sensed at the static vent.
Relationships Between Air Speeds

• Equivalent Air Speed (EAS) : IAS corrected for ‘position’ AND ‘compressibilty’ error.
֎ Becomes significant at higher speeds…..

• True Air Speed (TAS) or (V) : The speed of the aircraft through the air.

EAS
TAS =
 

*Ϭ = Relative Density
Relationships Between Air Speeds

• The Speed of Sound (a) :

The speed at which pressure waves propogate is proportional to the square root of the absolute
temperature of the air.

֎ ISA day…..SL……340 m/s (660 kt TAS)

 
𝑇
*LSS (a) = 331 (m/s)

*LSS= Local Speed of Sound

√ 273 ˚ 𝐾
* T = Kelvin
 Relationships Between Air Speeds

• Mach Number (M): the speed of the aircraft in relation to the local speed of sound

TAS
M= * a = Local Speed of Sound (LSS)
 

• Critical Mach Number (MCRIT): It is the Mach number of the aircraft when the speed of the
airflow over some part of the aircraft first reaches the speed of sound.
Relationships Between Air Speeds

• Airspeed:

The Airspeed Indicator is a

Pressure Gauge
Relationships Between Air Speeds

• Errors and Corrections:

֎ Instrument Error: Design & Manufacture

֎ Position Error (Pressure Error): Effected static ports and pitot tubes.

֎ Compressibility Error: Over-read of ASI at high speeds.

Relationships Between Air Speeds

• V Speeds:
Relationships Between Air Speeds

• Summary:

֎ Dynamic pressure (Q) is affected by changes in air density.

֎ T/O from an airfield with low atmospheric pressure and/or high air temperature and/or high
humidity, will require a higher TAS.

֎ As altitude increases, a higher TAS is required to maintain a constant dynamic pressure.

֎ Aircraft ‘V’ speeds are CAS, exept VMO which is an EAS, but all are presented to the pilot in
the Flight Manual as IAS.