Material Selection

CHE 141
Responsibility of a Chemical Engineer

LEAKAGE

*due to incorrectly
specified material

H2, H2S and LPG

Learning Outcomes

• Relate the types of materials to safety,

reliability, life time, and cost of equipment.

• Use corrosion and chemical resistance as

important criteria in material selection.
Material Properties

The most important characteristics to be

considered when selecting a material of
construction are:
1.Mechanical properties
2.The effect of high temperature, low
temperature and thermal cycling on the
mechanical properties
3.Corrosion resistance
4.Any special properties required such as
thermal conductivity, electrical resistance, and
magnetic properties
Material Properties

5. Ease of fabrication: forming, welding and

casting
6. Availability of standard sizes: plates,
sections and tubes
7. Cost
Mechanical Properties
Mechanical Properties
 Mechanical Properties

1. Tensile Strength
• The maximum stress that the material will
withstand, measured by a standard tensile
test.
• Proof stress is the stress to cause a specified
permanent extension, usually 0.1%.
• The maximum allowable stress specified by
the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel (BPV)
Code is calculated from these and other
material properties at the design temperature,
and allowing for suitable safety factors. (To be
discussed in “Storage Systems”)
Mechanical Properties
Mechanical Properties

2. Stiffness
• Ability to resist bending and buckling.
• A function of the elastic modulus of the
material and the shape of the cross-section
of the member (e.g. stiffer materials has
higher elastic modulus)
 Mechanical Properties
3. Toughness
• Associated with tensile strength, and is a
measure of material’s resistance to crack
propagation.
• The crystal structure of ductile materials,
such as steel, aluminum and copper, is such
that they stop the propagation of crack by
local yielding at the crack tip.
• In other materials, such as cast
irons and glass, the structure is
such that the yielding does not
occur and the materials are brittle.
Mechanical Properties

4. Hardness
• The surface hardness, as measured in a
standard test, is an indication of a material’s
ability to resist wear.
• This will be an important property if the
equipment is being designed to handle
abrasive solids, or liquids containing
suspended solids that are likely to cause
erosion.
 New impeller

Eroded impeller
Mechanical Properties

5. Fatigue
• Fatigue failure is likely to occur in
equipment subject to cyclic loading; for
example rotating equipment such as pumps
and compressors and equipment subject to
temperature or pressure cycling.
Mechanical Properties

6. Creep
• Gradual extension of a material under a
steady tensile stress, over a prolonged
period of time. It is usually only important at
high temperatures, for instance, with steam
and gas turbine blades.
• The creep strength of a material is usually
reported as the stress to cause rupture in
100,000 hours, at the test temperature.
Effect of Temperature on Mechanical
Properties
The tensile strength and elastic modulus of
metals decrease with increasing temperature.
Materials must be chosen that have sufficient
strength at the design temperature to give an
economic and mechanically feasible wall thickness.

At low temperatures, less than 10 degC, metals

that are normally ductile can fail in a brittle
manner.
For low temperature equipment, such as cryogenic
plant and liquefied-gas storages, austenitic stainless
steels or aluminum alloys should be specified.
Classification of Corrosion

1. Uniform corrosion
2. Galvanic corrosion
3. Pitting
4. Intergranular corrosion
5. Stress corrosion cracking
6. Erosion-corrosion
7. High-temperature oxidation and sulfidation
8. Hydrogen embrittlement
Classification of Corrosion
Classification of Corrosion

1. Uniform Corrosion
• In corrosion testing, the corrosion rate is
measured by the reduction in weight of a
specimen of known area over a fixed period
of time.
 Classification of Corrosion

1. Uniform Corrosion

For carbon and low alloy steel, refer to the values above.
For high alloy steels, brasses and aluminum, divide the
values above by two.
Classification of Corrosion

2. Galvanic Corrosion
• If dissimilar metals are placed in contact, in
an electrolyte, the corrosion rate of the
anodic metal will be increased, as the metal
lower in the electrochemical series will
readily act as cathode.
Perry, et. al. “Perry’s Chemical….” 7th ed..
Classification of Corrosion

3. Pitting

• Highly localized
corrosion that forms pits
in the metal surface.
• If a material is liable to pitting, penetration can
occur prematurely and corrosion rate data are
not a reliable guide to the equipment life.
• A good surface finish will reduce this type of
attack.
Classification of Corrosion

4. Intergranular Corrosion

• Preferential corrosion of
material at the grain (crystal)
boundaries.

• Common form of attack on alloys but occurs

rarely with pure metals.
• Usually caused by a differential couple being
set up between impurities at the grain
boundary. Impurities will tend to accumulate at
the grain boundaries after heat treatment.
Weld decay 
Precipitation of
chromium carbides
in a zone adjacent
to the weld, where
temperature has
been 500-800
degC.
Classification of Corrosion

5. Stress Corrosion Cracking

• Form of attack in which
cracks are produced that
grow rapidly and can cause
premature, brittle failure of
the metal.
Conditions necessary for stress corrosion
cracking to occur are:
•Simultaneous stress and corrosion
•Corrosive substance: Cl-, OH-, NO3-, NH4+
Classification of Corrosion

5. Stress Corrosion Cracking

Examples:
•Caustic embrittlement of steel boilers
•Stainless steel in the presence of chloride ions
Classification of Corrosion

6. Erosion-Corrosion
• If the fluid stream contains suspended
particles, or where there is high velocity or
turbulence, erosion will tend to remove the
products of corrosion and any protective film
and the rate of attack will be markedly
increased.
Classification of Corrosion

7. High Temperature Oxidation and Sulfidation

• Carbon steels and low alloy steels will oxidize
rapidly at high temperatures and their use is
limited to temperatures below 480 degC.
• Chromium is the most effective alloying
element to give resistance to oxidation,
forming an oxide film. This alloy should be
used for services above 480 degC in
oxidizing atmospheres.
• In reducing environments, sulfur is present as
H2S which causes sulfidation of metals.
Classification of Corrosion

8. Hydrogen Embrittlement
• Loss of ductility caused by absorption and
reaction of hydrogen in a metal.
Classification of Corrosion

A. Pitting

B. Galvanic Corrosion

C. Uniform Corrosion

www.iitb.ac.in
Classification of Corrosion

A. Pitting

B. Galvanic Corrosion

C. Uniform Corrosion

D. None of the above

http://cathodic--protection.blogspot.com
Classification of Corrosion

A. Pitting

B. Galvanic Corrosion

C. Uniform Corrosion

D. Stress Corrosion
www.met-tech.com Cracking
Material: 304L SS
Process Fluid: Aqueous NaCl
Material Cost

The quantity of a material used will depend on the

material density and strength (maximum allowable
stress) and these must be taken into account when
comparing material costs. Moore (1970) compares
costs by calculating a cost rating factor defined by:
Material Cost
General Types of Materials

1. Carbon Steel
2. Low Alloy Steels Ferrous Metals
3. Stainless Steel
4. Nickel and Nickel Alloys
5. Copper and Copper Alloys
Non-Ferrous
Metals
6. Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys
7. Glass or Glassed Steel
Nonmetallics
8. Plastic Materials
General Types of Materials

1. Carbon Steel
 Carbon content is 0.12-2.0%.
 Most commonly used building material due to strength
properties and cost rather than corrosion resistance.
 Standard material selection for non-corrosive service at design
temperatures from -29 to 3400C.
 Good resistance to alkalis, organics and some strong oxidizing
agents

Applications: Caustic, ammonium

hydroxide, amines, sulfates,
peroxides
General Types of Materials
2. Low Alloy Steels
 Contains low concentrations of one or more alloying agents to
improve properties over carbon steel to atmospheric
environments.
 Corrosion resistance to acid and alkaline solution is about
equivalent to carbon steel.
Nickel – increases strength and improves corrosion resistance.
Chromium and Silicon – improves hardness, abrasion resistance,
corrosion resistance and resistance to oxidation.
Molybdenum – increases strength at higher temperature.
General Types of Materials

3. Stainless Steel
Martensitic (410 Series) – contains 12-20% Cr with controlled
amounts of carbon and other additives; for mildly corrosive
environment (atmospheric, fresh water and organic exposure).
Ferritic (430 Series) – contains 15-30% Cr with low carbon
content (0.1%); for mildly corrosive solution and oxidizing
media
Austenitic (300 Series) – contains 16-26% Cr plus 6-22% Ni; for
most corrosion resistant among the three groups.

Applications: Nitric acid, caustic,

sulfates, peroxides.
General Types of Materials

3. Stainless Steel
 Best for oxidizing conditions, since the resistance depends on
an oxide film on the surface of the alloy.
 Reducing conditions and chloride ions destroy the protective
film (via pitting/crevice corrosion and stress corrosion cracking)
and bring on rapid attack.

Chromium Oxide

Cr Cr Cr Cr Cr
General Types of Materials

3. Stainless Steel

Towler, et. al. 2008. “Chemical Engineering Design”

General Types of Materials

4. Nickel and Nickel Alloys

 Good resistance to many of the reducing media that attack
stainless steel.
 Addition of chromium result in alloys that are resistant to wide
range of oxidizing and reducing media.
 Monel 400, Inconel 600, etc.

Applications: Hydrofluoric acid, dilute sulfuric acid and alkalis.

General Types of Materials

5. Copper and Copper Alloys

 Excellent low temperature properties (-1950C); high
resistance to marine atmospheres, sea water, alkalis and
solvents; oxidizing acids rapidly corrode copper.
Brasses (up to 45% Zn)
Bronzes (Cu-Sn, Cu-Si)
Cupro-Nickels (10-30% Ni)
General Types of Materials

6. Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

 Excellent low temperature properties (-2500C)
 High thermal and electrical conductivity (60% of pure copper).
 Strength declines greatly above 1500C
 Galvanic corrosion is a potential problem.
 Cannot be used for caustic solutions.

Applications: Nitric acid, glacial acetic

acid.
General Types of Materials

7. Glass or Glassed Steel

 Excellent resistance to acids
except HF
 Subject to attack by hot alkaline
solutions
 Disadvantage: brittleness and
damage to thermal shock.
General Types of Materials

8. Plastic Materials
 Lightweight, good thermal and electrical insulators, easy to
fabricate and low friction factors.
 Excellent resistance to weak acids and inorganic salt solutions.
Do not corrode electrochemically (unaffected by pH, impurities
and oxygen content).
 Limited to moderate temperatures and pressures.
 Less resistant to mechanical abuse, have high expansion
rates, low strength and fair resistance to solvents.
Material Selection

As a general guide, use Table 28-2: General Corrosion Properties of

Some Metals and Alloys, Perry’s. 7th ed.

Problem: Recommend a material for temporary caustic storage tank with

the following specifications.
Caustic Concentration = 3 Baume
Capacity = 50 m3
Operating Temperature = Ambient
Operating Pressure = Atmospheric

A.Austenitic Stainless Steel  (5) Good to Excellent.

B.Aluminum  (0) Unsuitable.
C.Carbon Steel  (4) Good. Suitable when superior
alternatives are uneconomic.
 Design Life and Corrosion Allowances
Design Life – period of time during which a material,
vessel, piping or equipment is expected to work within
its specified parameters.
Corrosion Allowance (CA) – a design contingency for
corrosion expressed as additional thickness of
material.
(for a cylinder)

(for a sphere)

To calculate the minimum metal thickness for pipes, refer to Equation 10-92,
Perry, et. al. 7th ed. 1997.
To calculate the minimum metal thickness of vessels, refer to ASME equations
(to be discussed on “Storage Systems”).
Design Life and Corrosion Allowances
 Typical design life for piping is a minimum of 10 years.

Classification Corrosion Allowance

(min.)
Non-corrosive (ex. air, nitrogen, 0 mm
hydrocarbons at ambient
temperature)
Mildly Corrosive (ex. cooling water, 1.5 mm
steam)
Moderately Corrosive (ex. wet sour 3 mm
gas, sour water, caustic, lean amines)
Corrosive (ex. aerated water, rich 6.4 mm
amines, wet acid salts, hot H2S)
Design Life and Corrosion Allowances
 Typical design life for vessels, heat exchangers, tanks
and equipment is 20 years.
 Minimum corrosion allowance of 1/8” ( 3 mm ) if built
of carbon or low alloy steel.
 For corrosion resistant alloys, design life is 20 years
or more and no corrosion allowance is normally
specified.
Standard Thickness of Metals
 Pipes
 Schedule Number (Table 10-18, Perry’s. 7th ed.)

 Carbon Steel Vessels

1/8”, 3/16”, 1/4“, 5/16”, 3/8” 7/16”, 1/2“…

 Tubing (for shell and tube heat exchangers)

BWG 12, 14, 16, 18…

Note: Different materials have different gauge equivalent.

GPSA Engineering Databook. 2004.
Refer to Section 28, Perry’s. 7th ed. for the ASTM
equivalent of other materials.