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Editing
The process of checking the completeness, consistency, and legibility of data and
making the data ready for coding and transfer to storage.
Item Nonresponse
The technical term for an unanswered question on an otherwise complete
questionnaire resulting in missing data.
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Coding
The process of assigning a numerical score or other character symbol to
previously edited data.
Codes
Rules for interpreting, classifying, and recording data in the coding
process.
The actual numerical or other character symbols assigned to raw data.
Data File
The way a data set is stored electronically in spreadsheet-like form in
which the rows represent sampling units and the columns represent
variables.
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Two Basic Rules for Coding Categories:
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Possible-Code Cleaning
Any given variable will have a specified set of answer choices and codes to match each answer choice.
For example, the variable gender will have three answer choices and codes for each: 1 for male, 2 for
female, and 0 for no answer. If you have a respondent coded as 6 for this variable, it is clear that an error
has been made since that is not a possible answer code. Possible-code cleaning is the process of checking
to see that only the codes assigned to the answer choices for each question (possible codes) appear in
the data file.
If you are not using a computer program that checks for coding errors during the data entry process, you
can locate some errors simply by examining the distribution of responses to each item in the data set.
For example, you could generate a frequency table for the variable gender and here you would see the
number 6 that was mis-entered. You could then search for that entry in the data file and correct it.
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• Data integrity is essential to successful research and
decision making.
they generally also assume that one's measures derive from an equal-
interval scale (Interval or Ratio variables)
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NON-PARAMETRIC
PARAMETRIC TEST
TEST
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2. BASIC ASSUMPTION OF PARAMETRIC
TEST – NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED DATA SET
Mean, Median, and Mode are equal.
A standard deviation close to zero .
Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk
Gender
Statistic df Sig. Statistic df Sig.
Male 0.105 127 0.002 0.984 127 0.141
Purchase
Female 0.067 122 0.200 0.986 122 0.223
*. This is a lower bound of true significance.
a. Lilliefors Significance Correction
Female Purchase:
Symmetric bell-
shaped curve,
normally
distributed
Q-Q PLOT
CS – Interval variable
Thus, H2 is supported.
INDEPENDENT-SAMPLE T-TEST
Used to compare the mean of a variable
between two unrelated groups.
H3: The mean score of customer
satisfaction between males and females is
not equal.
Bivariate analysis.
Gender = Nominal
CS = Interval
Performance: Interval
Training: Nominal
Thus, H4 is supported.
5. MEASURES OF ASSOCIATION
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PEARSON CORRELATION
COEFFICIENT
Used to measure the strength of a linear
association between two variables.
H5: There is a relationship between
employee motivation and performance.
Bivariate analysis.
interval.
SPSS steps: Analyze/regression/linear/move
performance to dependent box/move involvement
& welfare to independent box/statistics/tick
estimates, model fit, descriptives & collinearity
diagnostics/continue/OK
SPSS output:
- Refer model summary: Adjusted R square = 0.45, indicates that 5% of the variance in the
dependent variable can be predicted from independent variables.
Refer ANOVA table: P-value=0.00 (<0.05) indicates the equation is a good fit.
Refer coefficient table: standard coefficient of involvement is 0.435 (p=0.00) and welfare is
0.314 (p=0.00) indicates both significantly related to performance. 31
Thus H6 & H7 is supported.
LOGISTIC REGRESSION
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MEDIATION
An initial independent variable X1 may influence the
dependent variable Y through a mediator X2.
a
Y
X1
b c
X2
MODERATION
A moderator is a variable that alters the relationship between
an independent variable and a dependent variable.
Y
X
M
7. STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELLING
(SEM)
Structural equation modeling (SEM) uses when a researcher is
faced with a set of interrelated variables, yet none of the multivariate
techniques allow the researcher to address the issues. SEM is widely
used for following: