Cross Drainage Works

Definition: A cross drainage work is a structure carrying

the discharge from a natural stream across a canal
intercepting the stream.
Canal comes across obstructions like rivers, natural drains
and other canals.
The various types of structures that are built to carry the
canal water across the above mentioned obstructions or
vice versa are called cross drainage works.
It is generally a very costly item and should be avoided by:
•Diverting one stream into another.
•Changing the alignment of the canal so that it crosses
below the junction of two streams.
TYPES OF CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS
Depending upon levels and discharge, cross drainage
works may be grouped into following types:
A. Canal crossing over a Drain
An Aqueduct
Siphon Aqueduct
B. Canal crossing under a Drain
Super passage
Siphon
C. Canal crossing a Drain at the same level
Level crossing
Drainage Inlet and Outlet
A. Canal crossing over a Drain
Aqueduct
When the HFL of the drain is sufficiently below the bottom
of the canal such that the drainage water flows freely
under gravity, the structure is known as Aqueduct.
Canal water is carried across
the drainage in a trough
supported on piers.
Provided when sufficient
level difference is available
between the canal and
natural and canal bed is
sufficiently higher than HFL.
Aqueduct: Canal crossing over a Drain and
Water level in the drain fairly below the canal bed
Siphon Aqueduct:
In case of the siphon Aqueduct, the HFL of the drain is much
higher above the canal bed, and water runs under siphonic
action through the Aqueduct barrels.
The drain bed is generally depressed and provided with
pucca floors, on the upstream side either by a vertical drop
or by glacis of 3:1.
The downstream rising slope should not be steeper than 5:1.
When the canal is passed over the drain, the canal remains
open for inspection throughout and the damage caused by
flood is rare. However during heavy floods, the foundations
are susceptible to scour or the waterway of drain may get
choked due to debris, tress etc.
B. Canal crossing under a Drain
Super passage
The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is passing
over the irrigation canal is known as super passage. This
structure is suitable when the bed level of drainage is
above the FSL of the canal and water of the canal passes
clearly below the drainage.
A super passage is similar to an
aqueduct, except in this case the
drain is over the canal.
The FSL of the canal is lower
than the underside of the trough
carrying drainage water. Thus,
the canal water runs under the
gravity.
Canal Siphon
If two canals cross each other and one of the canals is
siphoned under the other, then the hydraulic structure at
crossing is called “canal siphon”.
For example, lower Jhelum canal is siphoned under the
Rasul-Qadirabad link canal.
In case of siphon the FSL of the canal is much above the
bed level of the drainage trough, so that the canal runs
under the siphonic action.
The canal bed is lowered and a ramp is provided at the exit
so that the trouble of silting is minimized.
It is reverse of an siphon aqueduct .
In the above two types, the inspection road cannot be
provided along the canal and a separate bridge is required
for roadway. For economy, the canal may be flumed but
the drainage trough is never flumed.
Selection of Suitable Site for Cross Drainage Works
The factors which affect the selection of suitable type of
cross drainage works are:
Relative bed levels and water levels of canal and
drainage.
Size of the canal and drainage.
The following considerations are important:
 When the bed level of the canal is much above the
HFL of the drainage, an aqueduct is the obvious
choice.
 When the bed level of the drain is well above FSL of
canal, super passage is provided.
 The necessary headway between the canal bed level
and the drainage HFL can be increased by shifting the
crossing to the downstream of drainage. If, however,
it is not possible to change the canal alignment, a
siphon aqueduct may be provided.
 When canal bed level is much lower, but the FSL of
canal is higher than the bed level of drainage, a canal
siphon is preferred.
 When the drainage and canal cross each other
practically at same level, a level crossing may be
preferred. This type of work is avoided as far as
possible.
 Compared to an aqueduct a super passage is inferior
and should be avoided whenever possible. Siphon
aqueduct is preferred over siphon unless large drop in
drainage bed is required.
The considerations which govern the choice between
aqueduct and siphon aqueduct are:
•Suitable canal alignment
•Suitable soil available for bank connections
•Nature of available foundations
•Permissible head loss in canal
•Availability of funds
Classification of aqueduct and siphon aqueduct
Depending upon the nature of the sides of the aqueduct or
siphon aqueduct it may be classified under three headings:
Type I:
Sides of the aqueduct in earthen banks with complete
earthen slopes. The length of culvert should be sufficient to
accommodate both, water section of canal, as well as earthen
banks of canal with aqueduct slope.
Sides of the aqueduct in earthen banks, with other slopes
supported by masonry wall. In this case, canal continues in its
earthen section over the drainage but the outer slopes of the
canal banks are replaced by retaining wall, reducing the
length of drainage culvert.
Type II:
Sides of the aqueduct made of concrete or masonry. Its
earthen section of the canal is discontinued and canal
water is carried in masonry or concrete trough, canal is
generally flumed in this section.
Design of Aqueduct and Siphon Aqueduct
Head Loss
Total head loss = head loss @(entrance + exit + transition)
In properly designed transitions almost 80-90% of head
loss is recovered as Potential Energy i.e. depth at exit.
Head loss at Entrance and Exit = f(shape)
Head loss in transition = f(type & material of construction)
Roughness coefficient:
For steel, n = 0.012
For concrete, n = 0.014
Velocities
For economy, canal and drain sections are flumed to 50%
at crossing site through concrete trough.
Velocity in canal: 2 m/sec

Bed slope
In open trough: Flow is uniform, bed is kept parallel to
slope of energy line.
In closed trough: Flow is non-uniform, energy has to be
computed. Closed troughs are kept horizontal to carry
roads, inspection paths, etc.
Example
A distributary canal is to cross a Branch canal. Prepare
hydraulic design of an aqueduct with the following data:
Branch canal Distributary
Full supply discharge 20 cumec 10 cumec
Bed width 18.3 m 13 m
FSL 106.43 109.05
Bed level (BL) 104.90 107.71
Slope 1:6,666 1:6,666
Mean velocity 0.64 m/s 0.61 m/s
Angle of crossing 90o 90o
Aqueduct: Distributary crossing a Canal
Solution:
For economy, branch canal as well as distributary are
flumed at the entrance and exit of crossing, as shown
below.
Branch canal
Reduce waterway of the branch canal from 20.0 to 11.0 m by
providing 3 spans of 3.7 m with 2 piers of 0.8 m width each.
Distance b/w abutment to abutment = 11.0 + (2 x 0.8)
= 12.6 m
Discharge intensity, q = Q/12.6 = 20/12.6 = 1.82 cumec/m
Critical depth, Dc = (q2/g)1/3 = 0.969 m
Assume depth of crossing = 1.4 m
Assumed bed level = FSL of canal – depth
= 106.43 – 1.4 = 105.03 m
Adopt bed level same as bed level of the secondary canal.
Distributary canal
In order that trough bottom remains above the FSL of branch
canal, keep the BL of the trough at 107.71.
Assume,
thickness of the slab = 0.5 m

Bottom of trough slab @ 107.71 – 0.5 = 107.21

It is 0.78 m (=107.21 - 106.43) above the FSL of branch canal.
Distributary canal will have a rectangular RCC trough,
designed as lined canal, with
Hydraulic slope = 1:6,666; n = 0.014 for RCC;
depth = 109.05-107.71 = 1.34 m;
bed width = 9.25 m (flumed from 13.0 m)
Discharge, Q = 10 + 10% = 10 + 1 = 11 cumecs
Perimeter, P = B + 2D = 9.25 + (2x1.34) = 11.93 m
Area, A = BD = 9.25 x 1.34 = 12.95 m2
Hydraulic radius, R = A/P = 12.95/11.93 = 1.08 m
1 23 12
Velocity, V  R S  0.92 m/sec
n
Discharge, Q = A.V = 12.95 x 0.92 = 11.91 > 10 cumec
Hence, the section is adequate.
Design of Siphon
Loss of Head
Due to:
shape of Inlet and Exit;
skin friction in pipes/conduits; and
bends.
Designed for minimum losses.
At entrance PE changes into KE.
Proper design to avoid loss of KE in form of eddies causing
scouring/erosion of bed and sides.
Velocity
Siphon barrels designed to withstand high-self cleansing
velocities (2.5 ~ 3.0 m/sec).

Uplift Pressure on Siphon Structure

The whole siphon structure is subjected to uplift pressure
under the following varying conditions:
a.Uplift pressure when the canal or drain is empty and
siphon is running full.
b.Pressure acting on the barrels when the canal is running
and the siphon is empty.
Scour
The barrels (under the canal/drain bed) are to be protected
against scour due to flow of water.
Example
A canal is crossing a stream. Design a suitable cross
drainage structure knowing the following data:
Stream
Discharge, Q = 400 cfs
Highest flood level = 475.58 (at the point of crossing)
Bed width, B= 100 ft
Canal
Q = 100 cfs; V = 2.5 ft/sec; n = 0.0225 (unlined);
FSL = 478.70; Bed level = 474.70; Free board = 1.5 ft
Full supply depth = 4 ft; BW = 10 ft;
Hydraulic slope = 1:4,000
Solution:
To determine which type of cross drainage structure
would be suitable for this place, consider the following:
i.Canal discharge = 100 cfs; Stream discharge = 400 cfs;
Stream discharge > Canal discharge
ii.HFL of stream = 475.58; BL of canal = 474.70; Difference
= 0.88 ft, i.e. too small as Free board of an aqueduct
Hence, canal will cross the stream through a siphon.
Length of siphon = BW of stream + 10% + Side slopes
= 100 + 10 + (2 x 45)
= 200 ft
Discharge of siphon = 100 + 10% = 110 cfs
Assume velocity in the barrels = 4 ft/sec (for self cleansing
purposes)
Design of square concrete barrels:
A = Q/V = 110/4 = 27.5 ft2
Let, side of barrel = a
Area of barrel, A = a x a = a2 = 27.5 ft2
a = 5.25 ft
Barrel will be pre-cast concrete sections.
Scour
13
q 2

Scour depth, R  0.9 
 f 
q = Q / B = 400/100 = 4
Assume, f = 1.0
13
4 2

 R  0.9   2.27 ft
 1 

Maximum scour depth = 2 R = 2 x 2.27 = 4.54 ft

Barrel will be laid in the following shape at a level at least
4.54 ft below the bed level.
Head loss = Inlet loss + Frictional loss through the barrel +
loss at bends + Exit loss
Loss at inlet, hi = 0.5 V2/2g = (0.5 x 42)/(2 x 32.2) = 0.12 ft
Frictional loss: It can be measured by the slope of energy
line or the water surface in the barrel. It is calculated by
Manning’s formula.
Total head loss due to friction, hf = S x Length of barrel
Area of the barrel, A = 27.5 ft2
Wetted perimeter, P = 4 x 5.25 = 21 ft
Hydraulic mean depth, R = A / P = 27.5/21 = 1.31 ft
Loss at inlet, hi = 0.5 V2/2g = 0.5(2.45)2/(2 x 9.81) = 0.15 m
Putting the values in Manning’s equation,
1.486 2 3 1 2
V R S
n
1.486
4 1.312 3  S1 2
0.014
Which yield, S = 0.03
head loss due to friction, hf = S x Length of barrel
= 0.03 x 200 = 6.0 ft
 V2 
Head loss at bends, h b  2  f 
 2g 
δ 4 δ
where f  Sin  2  Sin
2

2 2
and δ  tan -1 (0.2)  11.3 o
Putting the values, we get
f = 0.009992 and hb = 0.005 ft
Loss of head at Exit, h e  
0.5 2
2g
V  V12 
where, V = Velocity in barrel = 4.0 ft/sec
V1 = Velocity in canal = 2.5 ft/sec
Putting the values, he = 0.012 ft
Total head loss = hi + hf + hb + he
= 0.12 + 6.0 + 0.005 + 0.012 = 6.14 ft
FSL of canal on d/s of the siphon = FSL – Head loss
= 478.70 – 6.14 = 472.56 ft
Example
A canal is crossing a stream. Design a suitable cross
drainage structure knowing the following data:
Stream
Discharge, Q = 12.33 cumec
Highest flood level = 475.58
Bed width, B= 30 m
Canal
Q = 2.5 cumec; V = 0.58 m/sec; BW = 1.95 m;
Bed Level = 474.7; Full supply depth = 1.30;
Free board = 0.46 m; Hydraulic slope = 1:4,000
Solution
To determine which type of cross drainage structure
would be suitable at this place, consider the following:
i.Canal discharge = 2.5 cumecs;
ii.Stream discharge = 10.33 cumecs
iii.Stream discharge > Canal discharge
iv.HFL of stream is at 475.58; BL of canal is at 474.70
Difference = 0.88 m, which is too small as free board
for an aqueduct.
Hence, Canal will cross the stream through a siphon.
Length of siphon = 30 + 10% + 2(15) = 63 m
Discharge of siphon = 2.5 + 10% = 2.75 cumec
Assume velocity of the barrels = 2.44 m/sec
Design of concrete square barrels,
A = Q / V = 1.02 m2
Let, side of barrel = a
Area of barrel, A = a2 = 1.02 m2
Therefore, a = 1.01 m
provide pre-cast barrels.
0.5
Cross Drainage Structure for a Canal and Drainage Line at
the same level
When the bed level of the canal and the drainage line
are at the same level, the usual method to allow canal to
cross the drain is to mix water of the canal with the water
of the drain and then to draw from it the canal's designed
discharge from the other side of the drain.
However, it is essential that the water of the drain is
suitable for irrigation purposes.
The works constructed to accomplish it, are called level
crossing.
 A level crossing consists of three cross regulators; two
across the canal and the third across the drain.
 In normal situation, i.e. when the drain is not running,
the canal water falls in the drain and the two waters are
allowed to be mixed.
 The gates of the cross regulator across the drain are
manipulated in such a way as to allow the canal
regulator to draw its designed discharge at that point at
the required level.
 When the drain is in flood, the canal Regulators are kept
closed and the drain regulator is kept fully open till the
sediment laden flood discharge passes downstream.
 When the flood recedes and the water becomes
clearer in the stream, the canal regulators are
opened allowing the canal to draw water as
usual.
 Another important factor is that only water from
the drain should be allowed to enter the canal
whose quality is suitable for the purposes of
canal water. Otherwise, another type of cross
drainage structure should be used.
Selection of Site for a Cross Drainage Structure
The site for cross drainage structure should be such that:
A. The canal and the drain should cross each other at a
right angle. Acute or obtuse angle crossing should be
avoided.
B. There should be sufficient straight reaches of canal and
drain on both the upstream and the downstream sides.
C. A sufficient reach of drain on the upstream should be
stable and uniform.
D. The foundation should be suitable for cross drainage
works.
Selection of the Type of Cross Drainage Structure
A. When the bed level of canal is sufficiently above the
highest flood level of the drain, an aqueduct is constructed.
B. When the highest flood level of the drain is higher than the
bed level of the canal, the aqueduct should be designed as
siphon aqueduct.
C. When the bed level of the drain is sufficiently higher than
the full supply level of canal, cross drainage work will be a
super passage.
D. When the full supply level of the canal is above the bed
level of the drain, cross drainage work will be a siphon.
E. If the bed levels of canal and drain are at the same level,
cross drainage structure is known as a level crossing.
Design of Siphon
Loss of Head
Due to:
shape of Inlet and Exit;
skin friction in pipes/conduits; and
bends.
Designed for minimum losses.
At entrance PE changes into KE.
Proper design to avoid loss of KE in form of eddies causing
scouring/erosion of bed and sides.
Commonly used Transitions:
i. Transitions with Splayed walls
ii. Transitions with Wrapped-up walls
i. Transitions with Splayed walls
Most commonly used due its simplicity.
Splay of 1:3 at inlet;
Splay of 1:5 at exit;
Maximum splay of walls, 45o;
Suitable for small and medium size canals.

ii. Transitions with Wrapped-up walls

Recommended for greater discharges.