EEE351 Principles of Communication Systems

EEE351
Principles of Communication Systems

Chapter No. 6
Adeel Iqbal
Lecturer
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
COMSATS University Islamabad
Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk)

12/20/2021 1
EEE351 PCS Chapter-06
• Angle modulation
Review
12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 2

Outline
• Baseband Systems
• Formatting Analog Information
– Sampling,
– Quantization,
– Encoding,
• Sources of Corruption
– SNRQ
• Uniform and Nonuniform Quantization
– Companding (A-Law, Mu-Law),
• Baseband Modulation
– PCM Waveforms: Line Coding (RZ, NRZ, Manchester, AMI)

Must Reading
• Chapter No. 2: Formatting and Baseband
Modulation
Digital Communications
Fundamentals and Applications
2nd Edition
Bernard Sklar

The first important step in any DCS
Transforming the information source to a form
compatible with a digital system
• Formatting and transmission of baseband signal
Digital info.
Textual Format
source info.
Pulse
Analog Transmit
Sample Quantize Encode modulate
info.
Pulse
Bit stream Channel
Format waveforms
Analog
info. D/A Decode Demodulate/
Receive
sink Textual Detect
info.
Digital info.
Format analog signals
• To transform an analog waveform into a form that
is compatible with a digital communication, the
following steps are taken:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization and encoding
3. Baseband transmission

Sampling
Time domain Frequency domain
x
s(t)x
(t)x
(t) X
s(f)X
( 
f) X
(f)
x(t )
| X(f )|
x (t ) | X ( f ) |
xs (t )
| Xs ( f ) |

Aliasing Effect
LP filter
Nyquist rate
aliasing

Sampling Theorem
Analog Sampling Pulse amplitude
signal process modulated (PAM) signal
 Sampling theorem: A bandlimited signal

with no spectral components beyond , can be
uniquely determined by values sampled at
uniform intervals of
 The sampling rate, is called

Nyquist rate.
Practical Sampling Rates
 Speech:
 Telephone quality speech has a bandwidth of 4 kHz
(actually 300 to 3300Hz)
 Most digital telephone systems are sampled at 8000
samples/sec
 Audio:
 The highest frequency the human ear can hear is
approximately 15kHz
 CD quality audio are sampled at rate of 44,000 samples/sec
 Video
 The human eye requires samples at a rate of at least 20
frames/sec to achieve smooth motion

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Pulse Code Modulation refers to a digital baseband
signal that is generated directly from the quantizer
output after encoding
 Sometimes the term PCM is used interchangeably
with quantization

Advantages of PCM
 Relatively inexpensive
 Easily multiplexed: PCM waveforms from
different sources can be transmitted over a

common digital channel (TDM)
 Easily regenerated: useful for long-distance
communication, e.g. telephone

 Better noise performance than analog system
 Signals may be stored efficiently as bits
Disadvantage:
 Requires wider bandwidth than analog signals

Sources of corruption in the sampled, quantized
and transmitted pulses
 Sampling and Quantization Effects
 Quantization (Granularity) Noise: Results when quantization levels
are not finely spaced apart enough to accurately approximate input

signal resulting in truncation or rounding error.
 Quantizer Saturation or Overload Noise: Results when input signal is
larger in magnitude than highest quantization level resulting in

clipping of the signal.
 Timing Jitter: Error caused by a shift in the sampler position. Because
Signal can only be exactly reconstructed if sampling positions are

exactly known at receiver. Can be isolated with stable clock reference.
 Channel Effects
 Channel Noise
 Inter-symbol Interference (ISI)

Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio
 The level of quantization noise is dependent on how close any
particular sample is to one of the L levels in the converter
 For a speech input, this quantization error resembles a noise-

like disturbance at the output of a DAC converter

Uniform Quantization
 A quantizer with equal quantization level is a Uniform
Quantizer
 Each sample is approximated within a quantile interval
 Uniform quantizers are optimal when the input distribution is
uniform
 i.e. when all values within the range are equally likely
 Most ADC’s are implemented using uniform quantizers

 Error of a uniform quantizer is bounded by

Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio (SNRq)
 The mean-squared value (noise variance) of the quantization
error is given by:

q
2

/
2
(
e2
)p
(
e)
d
q
/
2
e
(
e1
2
)
qd
q
1

/
2
2
q de
e
(
e
)
q
/
2 q
/
2 q
/
2
1 3q
e /2 q2
q3 
q/2 12

Peak Power of the Analog Signal
V 2
2

p p

L2q2
V  p
  ( )

 2

4
 
1 3q
e /2 q2
q3 
q/2 12

SNRq
2
L2 q 2
Vp p L2
q

2



SignalPower
2
V ( ) 
= 2 4
p
SNRq = 2 4



NoisePower q  
12

SNRq
3L2 σ 2
=
q2
12
Alternatively, in terms of number of bits ‘n’ and the Signal to quantization noise
ratio in dBs can be expressed as,
Since L = 2n, SNR = 3.22n or in decibels
 S  2 2n
  = 10log 10 ( 3L ) = 4.77 +10log10 ( 2 ) = 4.77 + 6n dB
 N  dB
Hence for every additional bit, you get 6 dB improvement

Nonuniform Quantization
Nonuniform quantizers have unequally spaced levels
 The spacing can be chosen to optimize the Signal-to-Noise
Ratio for a particular type of signal(Speech Signal)

It is characterized by:
 Variable step size
 Quantizer size depend on signal size

Nonuniform Quantization
Many signals, such as speech, have a non-uniform distribution
Basic principle is to use more levels at regions with large probability
density function (pdf)
 Concentrate quantization levels in areas of largest pdf
 Or use fine quantization (small step size) for weak signals and coarse
quantization (large step size) for strong signals

Nonuniform Quantization Using Companding
 Companding is a method of reducing the number of bits required in ADC
achieving an equivalent SQNR.
 In order to improve the resolution of weak signals within a converter, and

hence enhance the SQNR, the weak signals need to be enlarged, or the
quantization step size decreased, but only for the weak signals.
 But strong signals can potentially be reduced without significantly degrading

the SQNR or alternatively increasing quantization step size.
 The compression process at the transmitter must be matched with an

equivalent expansion process at the receiver.

Companding
 The signal below shows the effect of
compression, where the amplitude of
one of the signals is compressed
 After compression, input to the
quantizer will have a more uniform
distribution after sampling
 At the receiver, the signal is expanded

by an inverse operation
 The process of compressing and
expanding the signal is called
companding
 Companding is a technique used to
reduce the number of bits required in
ADC or DAC while achieving
comparable SQNR
Companding
 Basically, companding introduces a nonlinearity into the signal
 This maps a non-uniform distribution into something that
more closely resembles a uniform distribution

 A standard ADC with uniform spacing between levels can
be used after the compandor (or compander)

 The companding operation is inverted at the receiver
 There are in fact two standard logarithm based companding

techniques
 US standard called µ-law companding
 European standard called A-law companding

Input/Output Relationship of Compander
 Logarithmic expression Y = log X is the most commonly used

compander
 Taking the log of X reduces the dynamic range.

Types of Companding
  -Law Companding Standard (North & South America,
and Japan)
Where,
 x and y represent the input and output voltages
 μ is a constant number determined by experiment

 In the U.S., telephone lines uses companding with μ = 255
 Samples 4 kHz speech waveform at 8,000 sample/sec

 Encodes each sample with 8 bits, L = 256 quantizer levels
 Hence data rate R = 64 kbit/sec
 μ = 0 corresponds to uniform quantization

Types of Companding
A-Law Companding Standard (Europe, China, Russia, Asia, Africa)
Where,
 x and y represent the input and output voltages
 A = 87.6
 A is a constant number determined by experiment

Pulse Modulation
 Recall that analog signals can be represented by a sequence of discrete samples
(output of sampler)
 Analog Pulse Modulation (APM) results when some characteristic of the pulse
(amplitude, width or position) is varied in correspondence with the data signal
 Two Types:
 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
 The amplitude of the periodic pulse train is varied in proportion to the
sample values of the analog signal

 Pulse Time Modulation
 Encodes the sample values into the time axis of the digital signal
 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

 Constant amplitude, width varied in proportion to the signal
 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
 sample values of the analog waveform are used in determining
position of pulse signal

Pulse Modulation

PCM Waveform Types
 The output of the A/D converter is a set of binary bits
 But binary bits are just abstract entities that have no physical
definition
 We use pulses to convey a bit of information, e.g.,
 In order to transmit the bits over a physical channel they must be

transformed into a physical waveform
 A line coder or baseband binary transmitter transforms a stream of
bits into a physical waveform suitable for transmission over a
channel
 Line coders use the terminology mark for “1” and space to mean “0”
 In baseband systems, binary data can be transmitted using many
kinds of pulses
PCM Waveform Types
 There are many types of waveforms. Why?
 performance criteria!
 Each line code type have merits and demerits

 The choice of waveform depends on operating
characteristics of a system such as
 Bandwidth requirement
 Synchronization requirement
 Receiver complexity, etc.,

Goals of Line Coding: qualities to look for
 A line code is designed to meet one or more of the following goals:
 Self-synchronization
 The ability to recover timing from the signal itself
 That is, self-clocking (self-synchronization) - ease of clock lock

or signal recovery for symbol synchronization
 Long series of ones and zeros could cause a problem
 Low probability of bit error
 Receiver needs to be able to distinguish the waveform associated
with a mark from the waveform associated with a space

 BER performance
 relative immunity to noise
 Spectrum Suitable for the channel
 Spectrum matching of the channel
 In some cases DC components should be avoided
 The transmission bandwidth should be minimized

Goals of Line Coding: qualities to look for
 Power Spectral Density
 Particularly its value at zero
 PSD of code should be negligible at the frequency near zero
 Transmission Bandwidth
 Should be as small as possible
 Transparency
 The property that any arbitrary symbol or bit pattern can be
transmitted and received, i.e., all possible data sequence should be

faithfully reproducible

Summary of Major Line Codes
 Categories of Line Codes
 Polar - Send pulse or negative of pulse
 Unipolar - Send pulse or a 0
 AMI (a.k.a. alternate Mark Inversion or pseudoternary)
 Represent 1 by alternating signed pulses
 Generalized Pulse Shapes

 NRZ -Pulse lasts entire bit period
 Polar NRZ
 Unipolar NRZ
 RZ - Return to Zero - pulse lasts just half of bit period
 Polar RZ
 Unipolar RZ
 Manchester Line Code
 Send a 2-  pulse for either 1 (high  low) or 0 (low  high)
 Includes rising and falling edge in each pulse, no dc component

Commonly Used Line Codes
 Polar line codes use the antipodal mapping
 Polar NRZ uses NRZ pulse shape

 Polar RZ uses RZ pulse shape

Unipolar NRZ Line Code
 Unipolar non-return-to-zero (NRZ) line code is
defined by unipolar mapping
 In addition, the pulse shape for unipolar NRZ is:

• where Tb is the bit period

Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI)
 With AMI line codes a space is mapped to zero and a
mark is alternately mapped to -A and +A
 It is also called pseudoternary signaling

 Either RZ or NRZ pulse shape can be used

Manchester Line Codes
 Manchester line codes use the antipodal mapping and
the following split-phase pulse shape:

Summary of Line Codes

Comparison of Line Codes
 Self-synchronization
 Manchester codes have built in timing information because they always
have a zero crossing in the center of the pulse

 Polar RZ codes tend to be good because the signal level always goes to
zero for the second half of the pulse

 NRZ signals are not good for self-synchronization
 Error probability
 Polar codes perform better (are more energy efficient) than Unipolar or
AMI codes
 Channel characteristics
 We need to find the power spectral density (PSD) of the line codes to
compare the line codes in terms of the channel characteristics

Comparison of Line Codes

NRZ-L, NRZ-M, NRZ-S

Unipolar RZ, Bipolar RZ

RZ-AMI
The ones are represented by equal-amplitude alternating pulses.

The zeros are represented by the absence of pulses.

Bi-phase-level (Manchester Coding)
 A one represented by a half-bit-wide pulse positioned during

the first half of the bit interval
 A zero is represented by half-bit-wide positioned during
second half of the bit interval

Bi-phase-mark
A transition occurs at the beginning every bit interval

 A one is represented by a second transition one-half bit
interval later
 A zero is represented by no second transition

Bi-phase-space
A transition also occurs at the beginning of every bit interval

 A one is represented by no second transition
 A zero is represented by second transition one-half bit interval
later

Delay Modulation
 A one represented by a transition at the midpoint of the bit

interval
 A zero is represented by no transition unless it is followed by
another zero
 In this case a transition is placed at the end of the bit interval
of the first zero

Decode-NRZ
One-to-zero or zero-to-one data transition changes the pulse

polarity, without a data transition the zero level is sent

Decode-RZ
The one to zero or zero to one transition produces a half-duration

polarity change; otherwise a zero level is sent

Problems of Chapter#2
Digital Communication (Sklar)
 2.5,
 2.8,
 2.9,
 2.14,
 2.15,
 2.17,
 2.18

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EEE351

Principles of Communication Systems

Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk)

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 2

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 3

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 4

2. Quantization and encoding

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 6

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 7

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 8

 Sampling theorem: A bandlimited signal

 The sampling rate, is called

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 10

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 11

different sources can be transmitted over a

communication, e.g. telephone

 Signals may be stored efficiently as bits

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 12

are not finely spaced apart enough to accurately approximate input

larger in magnitude than highest quantization level resulting in

Signal can only be exactly reconstructed if sampling positions are

 Inter-symbol Interference (ISI)

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 13

 For a speech input, this quantization error resembles a noise-

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 14

 Most ADC’s are implemented using uniform quantizers

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 15

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 16

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 17

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 18

Ratio for a particular type of signal(Speech Signal)

 Variable step size

 Quantizer size depend on signal size

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 19

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 20

 In order to improve the resolution of weak signals within a converter, and

 But strong signals can potentially be reduced without significantly degrading

 The compression process at the transmitter must be matched with an

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 21

 At the receiver, the signal is expanded

more closely resembles a uniform distribution

be used after the compandor (or compander)

 There are in fact two standard logarithm based companding

 European standard called A-law companding

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 23

 Logarithmic expression Y = log X is the most commonly used

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 24

 μ is a constant number determined by experiment

 Samples 4 kHz speech waveform at 8,000 sample/sec

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 25

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 26

 The amplitude of the periodic pulse train is varied in proportion to the

sample values of the analog signal

 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 27

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 28

 In order to transmit the bits over a physical channel they must be

 Each line code type have merits and demerits

 Receiver complexity, etc.,

12/20/2021 Adeel Iqbal (adeeliqbal@comsats.edu.pk) EEE351 PCS Chapter-06 30

 The ability to recover timing from the signal itself

 That is, self-clocking (self-synchronization) - ease of clock lock