General Mycology

Prof. Dr. Mochammad Hatta, PhD, SpMK (K)

Bagian Mikrobiologi,
Fakultas Kedokteran, UNHAS

• The characteristics of fungi

• The evolution of the fungi
• Fungal classification
• Fungal life cycles mochammad hatta@2013
 The Characteristics of Fungi
• Body form
* unicellular
* filamentous (tube-like
strands called hypha
(singular) or hyphae
(plural)
* mycelium = aggregate
of hyphae
* sclerotium = hardened
mass of mycelium that
generally serves as an
overwintering stage.
* multicellular, such as
mycelial cords,
rhizomorphs, and fruit
bodies (mushrooms)
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fruiting bodies

both are
composed
of hyphae

mycelium
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 The Characteristics of Fungi
• Heterotrophy - 'other food'
* Saprophytes or saprobes - feed on dead
tissues or organic waste (decomposers)
* Symbionts - mutually beneficial
relationship between a fungus and
another organism
* Parasites - feeding on living tissue of a
host. 
• Parasites that cause disease are called
pathogens.
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Heterotrophic by Absorption
• Fungi get carbon from organic sources
• Hyphal tips release enzymes
• Enzymatic breakdown of substrate
• Products diffuse back into hyphae

Nucleus hangs back

and “directs”

Product diffuses back

into hypha and is used
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 Hyphae

• Tubular
• Hard wall of chitin
• Crosswalls may
form compartments
(± cells)
• Multinucleate
• Grow at tips
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 Hyphal growth
• Hyphae grow from their tips
• Mycelium = extensive, feeding web of hyphae

• Mycelia are the ecologically active bodies of

fungi
This wall is rigid Only the tip wall is plastic and stretches

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Modifications of hyphae

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 Fungi as infectious agents
• molds & yeasts are widely distributed in air, dust,
fomites & normal flora
• humans are relatively resistant
• fungi are relatively nonpathogenic
• of the 100,000 fungal species, only 300 have been
linked to disease in animals
• fungi are the most common plant pathogens
• human mycoses are caused by both true pathogens
and opportunistic pathogens
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 Mycoses
• Most fungal pathogens do not require a host to
complete their life cycles and infections are not
communicable
• Dermaphytes & Candida sp naturally inhabit
human body & are transmissible
• Dermaphytoses most prevalent fungal infection
• Most cases go undiagnosed or misdiagnosed
• Infections can be systemic, subcutaneous,
cutaneous or superficial
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Levels of invasion

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 Mycoses
• immunity to fungal infections consist of
nonspecific barriers, inflammation & cell
mediated defenses
• diagnosis & identification require microscopic
examination of stained specimens, culturing in
selective & enriched media & specific
biochemical & serological tests
• control with Antifungals such as amphotericin B,
flucytosine, azoles & nystatin
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 Antifungal Therapies
• Mycoses are among the most difficult diseases
to heal
* Fungi can often resist the oxidative damage of T
cells during cell-mediated immune responses
* Fungi are biochemically similar to human cells and
antifungal drugs can harm human tissues
• Fungi have ergosterol in their membranes rather
than cholesterol and it is often a target for
antifungal treatment
* Side effects can still result, especially with long-term
use mochammad hatta@2013
 Systemic mycoses caused by
true pathogens
• Thermal dimorphism
• Restricted to certain endemic regions of the world
• Soil is normal habitat
• Infection by inhalation of spores  Pulmonary
infections
* Histoplasma capsulatum
* Coccidioides immitis
* Blastomyces dermatitidis
* Paracoccidioidomycosis brasiliensis

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Generalized Life Cycle of a Fungus

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 Thermal
Dimorphism
25 degrees -
Hyphal state
37 degrees –
Yeast
State
Thermal
dimorphism is a
property of true
fungal pathogens
but is
uncommon for
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opportunistic
pathogens
Distribution of True Fungal
Pathogens

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Opportunistic Mycoses

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Factors that Predispose Individuals
to Opportunistic Mycoses

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Table
 Fungal allergies &
mycotoxicoses
• Fungal spores are common sources of atopic allergies
1. asthma, often occurring in seasonal episodes
2. farmer’s lung, a chronic & sometimes fatal allergy of agricultural workers exposed to
moldy grasses
3. teapicker’s lung
4. bagassosis, a condition caused by inhaling moldy dust from processed sugarcane
debris
5. bark stripper’s disease caused by inhaling spores from logs
• Fungal toxins lead to mycotoxicoses
Some may be caused by eating poisonous or hallucinogenic
mushrooms
Ergot poisoning can occur from ingestion of moldy grain

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Coccidioides immitis

Disseminated
coccidiomycosis

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Blastomyces dermatitidis

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Cutaneous blastomycosis
 lymphocutaneous
sprotrichosis

Primary sore and series of secondary nodules along lymphatic

chain in the arm mochammad hatta@2013
 Mycetoma

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Ringworm Tinea capitis – hatta@2013
mochammad T.corporis
Ringworm / Dermatophytosis/T.cruris, T.manuum,. T.pedis

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 Tinea
versicolor

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Candida albicans

Thrush

Candidal
diaper rash
Vaginitis

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Cryptococcus neoformans

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 Aspergillus

Conjunctival infection Brain abscesses (darkened areas)

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Fungi as Saprobes and
Decomposers

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Fungi as Symbionts (Mutualism)

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 Mycorrhizae
• “Fungus roots”
• Mutualism between:
* Fungus (nutrient & water uptake for plant)
* Plant (carbohydrate for fungus)
• Several kinds
* Zygomycota – hyphae invade root cells
* Ascomycota & Basidiomycota – hyphae invade root
but don’t penetrate cells

• Extremely important ecological role of fungi!

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“Ecto”mycorrhizae

Russula
mushroom
mycorrhizas on
Western
Hemlock root
Mycorrhiza cross sections

Fungal hyphae
around root and
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between cells
 Lichens
• “Mutualism” between
* Fungus – structure
* Alga or cyanobacterium –
provides food
• Three main types of lichens:
* Crustose lichens form flat
crusty plates. 
* Foliose lichens are leafy in
appearance, although lobed or
branched structures are not true
leaves.
* Fruticose lichens are even more
finely branched and may hang
down like beards from branches
or grow up from the ground like
tiny shrubs.
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 Lichen internal structure

Lichens are nature’s biological monitors of

pollution and air quality
• Thalli act like sponges
• Some species more sensitive to
pollution
• Which species are present can
indicate air quality
• Most resistant species can also be
analyzed for pollutants, including Lobaria
bioaccumulation of heavy metals and
radioactive isotopes mochammad hatta@2013
Fungi as Parasites & Pathogens

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 Fungi are Spore-ific!!!
• Spores - asexual (product of
mitosis) or sexual (product of
meiosis) in origin.
• Purpose of Spores
* Allows the fungus to move
to new food source.
* Resistant stage - allows
fungus to survive periods of
adversity.
* Means of introducing new
genetic combinations into a
population

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 Reproduce by spores
• Spores are reproductive cells
* Sexual (meiotic in origin)
* Asexual (mitotic in origin)
• Formed:
* Directly on hyphae
* Inside sporangia
* Fruiting bodies

Penicillium hyphae
with conidia
Pilobolus sporangia
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Amanita fruiting body
 Hyphal growth from spore

germinating
spore
mycelium

• Mycelia have a huge surface area

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 The Characteristics of Fungi
• Fungus is often hidden from view. It grows
through its food source (substratum),
excretes extracellular digestive enzymes,
and absorbs dissolved food.
• Indeterminate clonal growth.
• Vegetative phase of fungus is generally
sedentary.

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 The Characteristics of Fungi
• Cell wall present, composed of cellulose and/or chitin.
• Food storage - generally in the form of lipids and glycogen.
• Eukaryotes - true nucleus and other organelles present.
• All fungi require water and oxygen (no obligate anaerobes).
• Fungi grow in almost every habitat imaginable, as long as there
is some type of organic matter present and the environment is
not too extreme.
• Diverse group, number of described species is somewhere
between 69,000 to 100,000 (estimated 1.5 million species total).

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Evolution of the fungi
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 asci
basidia
zygosporangia

motile spores Classification

& Phylogeny
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 Chytridiomycota – “chytrids”
• Simple fungi
• Produce motile spores -
zoospores
• Mostly saprobes and
parasites in aquatic habitats
• Could just as well be
Protists Chytridium growing on spores

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Chytriomyces growing on pine pollen
 Zygomycota – “zygote fungi”
Rhizopus on strawberries

• Sexual Reproduction -
zygosporangia
• Asexual reprod. – common
(sporangia – bags of asexual
spores)
• Hyphae have no cross walls
• Grow rapidly
• Decomposers, pathogens, and
some form mycorrhizal
associations with plants

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Rhinocerebral zygomycosis
 Sexual zygsporangium
with one zygospore

Asexual sporangium
with spores inside

Life cycle of Rhizopus

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 Ascomycota – “sac fungi”

• Sexual Reproduction – asci

(sing. = ascus)
• Asex. Reprod. – common
• Cup fungi, morels, truffles
• Important plant parasites &
saprobes
• Yeast - Saccharomyces
• Decomposers, pathogens,
and found in most lichens
A cluster of asci with spores inside
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Sac fungi diversity

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 Basidiomycota – “club fungi”
• Sexual Reproduction – basidia
• Asexual reprod – not so
common
• Long-lived dikaryotic mycelia
• Rusts & smuts –plant parasites
• Mushrooms, polypores,
puffballs, boletes, bird’s nest
fungi
• Enzymes decompose wood,
leaves, and other organic
materials
• Decomposers, pathogens, and
some form mycorrhizal
associations with plants SEM of basidia and spores
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 Hyphal fusion mycelium and fruiting
haploid of haploid body are dikaryotic
mycelium mycelia

Mushroom
Life Cycle
N 2N N+N

Meiosis
Nuclear
fusion in
basidium
young basidia - the
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only diploid cells
Bioluminescence in Mycena

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 Some fungi have more than
one scientific name – Why?
• Teleomorph: the sexual reproductive stage
(morph), typically a fruiting body (e.g., Morchella
esculenta, Agaricus brunescens).
• Anamorph: an asexual reproductive stage
(morph), often mold-like (e.g. Aspergillus flavus,
Fusarium solani). When a single fungus produces
multiple morphologically distinct anamorphs, they
are called synanamorphs.
• Holomorph: the whole fungus, including all
anamorphs and the teleomorph.
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Deuteromycota – Form Phylum
“Imperfect Fungi”
• Fungi that seldom or never reproduce
sexually.
• Asexual reproduction by vegetative growth
and production of asexual spores common.

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 Yeasts
• Single celled fungi
• Adapted to liquids
* Plant saps
* Water films
* Moist animal tissues

Candida
Saccharomyces mochammad hatta@2013
 Molds
• Rapidly growth
• Asexual spores
• Many human importances
* Food spoilage
* Food products
* Antibiotics, etc.

Noble Rot - Botrytis mochammad hatta@2013

HUMAN-FUNGUS INTERACTIONS

• Beneficial Effects of Fungi

* Decomposition - nutrient and carbon recycling.
* Biosynthetic factories. Can be used to produce drugs, antibiotics,
alcohol, acids, food (e.g., fermented products, mushrooms).
* Model organisms for biochemical and genetic studies.
• Harmful Effects of Fungi
* Destruction of food, lumber, paper, and cloth.
* Animal and human diseases, including allergies.
* Toxins produced by poisonous mushrooms and within food (e.g.,
grain, cheese, etc.).
* Plant diseases.

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 Diagnosis/Treatment
• Grown in medium that selects for fungal
growth
* Grow at 25 C and 37 C
• KOH preparations of skin biopsies
* Dissolves keratin in skin scrapings or biopsies
* Leaves only fungal cells
• Therapy- amphotericin B or ketoconazole
* Toxic to humans

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 Virulence Factors
• Exoenzymes attack cells & progressively
digest & invade nearby cells
• Capsule: some yeasts
• Mycotoxins produced by mushrooms
* Hallucinogenic
* Damage liver
* Carcinogens: aflatoxins in grain and peanuts

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Microsporum
canis colony on
Sabouraud’s
agar

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Microsporum canis macroconidia (spore)
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Dermatophyte hyphae in KOH preparation of skin
scraping
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Microsporium gypseum macroconidia (spore)
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Histoplasma
capsulatum
macroconidia

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Trichopyton rubrum colony on Sabouraud’s agar
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Coccidioides immitis. Arthrospores after culture
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Coccidioidomycosis. Lung section shows sporangiospore
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Aspergillus fumigatus colony on Sabouraud’s agar
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Aspergillus fumigatus conidiosphores
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