 The soil strength depends upon many

factors as particle texture, soil gradation,

moisture content, bulk density and rate of
loading.
 Tests for measuring soil strength can be divided into
three principal groups as follows:

 1.Shear test;

 2.Plate loading test;

 3.California bearing ratio (C.B.R.).

 The main factors that affect the test results divided
into two groups:
 a-Factors hang up methods of testing as
 -size and shape of specimen;
 -method of loading;
 -rate of loading;
 -drainage conditions.
 b-Factors hang up soil in place as
 -soil type;
 -dry density;
 -moisture content;
 -soil permeability;
 -structure formed by soil particles.
 The basic component of the system is a camber
wherein a saturated sample, encapsulated in a rubber
membrane and capped top and bottom with a porous
stone, is seated on a pedestal and submerged in a
fluid. Load is applied tri-axially by pressurizing the
chamber fluid and un-axially through a load head
whose shaft extends through the chamber via a
permeation tight coupling. Vertical deformation and
also lateral deformation can be determined
 The following types of tri-axial tests are
performed:
 1.Quick - test
 2.Quick-drained test
 3.Slow test.

 The quick -undrained test (quick test) given the

design of pavements.
 -Shear strength of the soil
 The coulomb equation determine the relation between shear
strength at failure S and compression stress n at shear
failure surface as following :
 S = C + n tan 
 where
 C= cohesion of soil
  = angle of internal friction
 For clay soils saturated with water, not allow for drainage
( =0.0)
 S=C
 For granular soils without fines C=0
 S = n tan 
 This test is made to evaluate the supporting power
of subgrades and bases in the field and also to
determine the modulus of subgrade reaction K.
 Circular plates with different diameters are used,
usually, 30, 24, 18, and 12 inch, the load is applied
to the 12 in. plate by means of hydraulic jacks.
Deflection of the plate is measured by means of
deflection dials placed usually at the one-third
points of the plate near its outer edge (Figure 24). .
 1- Effect of plate size
 The unit load which a plate will sustain depends on the
perimeter over area ratio as well as the strength of the soil.
The unit load at a given deflection is calculated from the
following equation:


P = n + m * (p/a)

 where P = unit load
 n,m = empirical values obtained by test
 p/a = perimeter over area
 2-Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (K)
 A plate 30 inches in diameter is generally
employed in the test. By means of a loading
system and a calibrated jack, the subgrade is
subjected to a known pressures at a
predetermined rate of speed. The modulus K
is calculated as follows:
 K = P/ 
 where
 P = unit load on the plate (psi)
  = deflection of the plate (in.)
 There are two methods to determine the modulus K.
 a- Determination the unit load P at a deflection = 0.05 in.
 K = P0.05/0.05
 b-Determination the deflection at unit load = 10 psi
 K = 10/ 10
 The second method is more common. A unit load = 10 psi
or total load = 7070 Ib is applied on the 30 in. diameter
bearing plate during 10 sec. This constant load continue
until the excess in rate of deflection is less than 0.002
in./min. in case of clay soils.
 1. Effect of saturation
 The deformation of a soil sample in the laboratory is
determined by 10 psi unit load. A second sample similarly
compacted is then saturated and loaded under 10 psi. The
modulus Ks in this case may be determined by the equation
(figure 26):
 Ks = K *  / s
 where , s = deflection in soil samples at normal state and
saturated state under unit load = 10 psi.
 The test is designed to indicate the relative
stability of soil that has been constructed
with a particular density and water content
and that has adjusted to its environment
beneath the pavement.
 Test Procedure:
 The proper amount of water is mixed into
the soil. The soil is then compacted in a
cylindrical mold and soaked for 4 days
with an imposed load roughly equivalent
to that will be given by a prototype
pavement. The amount of volume change
is recorded during the soaking period.
 The strength test (CBR) is a penetration
test, whereby a circular piston with cross
section area of 3 in2 is forced into the
soaked soil at a constant rate of 0.05
inch/min. .The unit load at each 0.1 in.
penetration up to 0.5 in. is recorded and
the CBR computed at the ratio of an
arbitrarily selected unit load to that of the
standard. Table 6 shows the standard
values of unit loads.
 1.Surface drainage
 The portions of the highway structure that provide for
surface drainage in rural locations include the roadway
crown, shoulder and side slopes, longitudinal ditches
( channels), culverts and bridges.
 -Pavement and shoulder cross slopes
 Roadway surfaces are normally crowned to facilitate the
removal of surface water from the wearing surface.
Pavement cross slope should be steep enough to ensure
expeditions drainage, but not so steep as to course driver
annoyance, discomfort, or hazard.
 Shoulders are normally sloped to drain away from the
pavement surface, precipitation that occupy on the shoulder
area largely flows to the side ditches or the median.
 -Side slopes and side ditches
 In rural areas, open side ditches may be constructed along
embankment sections when needed to supplement natural
drainage channels. Both flat -bottomed and V-section
ditches are used (see Figure 31). In both cases, side slopes
are made as flat as possible consistent with drainage
requirements and limiting widths of right-of-ways.
 In very flat locations, ditch grades as low as 0.1 or 0.2%
may be used, while in rolling or mountainous terrain the
maximum grade may be dicthated only by the necessity for
preventing erosion.
 In urban areas and city streets, surface water
may be collected in two ditches beside the
shoulders in gutter. This gutter is made from
concrete or natural stone. The water flow
longitudinal in this gutter until reach to a hole
named GULLIES. The longitudinal slopes of
GUTTER is 1/100 to 1/120
 There are three types of subsurface drainage :
 1.intercepting drainage for the collection and removal of
ground seepage from the side slopes of cuts (Fig.33).
 2.subgrade drainage for holding the water table low in a
subgrade both during and after construction (Fig.34 ).
 3.base drainage to prevent flooding of pavement base by
infiltration from above and seepage from blow ( Fig.35 ).
Intercepting drainage often uses longitudinal trench drains
parallel to the roadway as in Figure 36.
 A trench drain consists of a perforated, slotted,
porous pipe, usually 6 to 8 in. diameter, surrounded
by pervious aggregate.
 Of critical importance is the design of the filter
aggregate. The filter material must be properly
graded and well compacted. Also, if compaction is
not enough, the ground or pavement over the drain
may subside. Finally, the drain should be sealed
over the top if the trench with relatively impervious
material to prevent the washing of fine material such
as silt.
 1.It serves to increase the peripheral area
which the drain may collect water from the
surrounding soil.
 2.A filter conducts converging water to the
drainpipe without allowing excessive seepage
force and piping.
 3.The filter is designed to hold the foundation
soil in place.
 On the basis of considerable experimentation, it
has been found that an ample increase in
permeability between foundation soil and filter is
usually provided when the filter does not contain
more than 5% fines and when
 (D15 of the filter / D15 of the foundation soil
 = 5 -40
 where:
 D15= grain size at which 15% of the soil
particles are as shown by mechanical analysis.
 To prevent clogging of the filter with
foundation soil, the pores of the filter
should not be excessively larger than the
coarse particles in the soil,

 (D15 of the filter / D85 of the

foundation soil  5
 For the case of slotted or perforated
pipes, pipe clogging is prevented when,

 ( D85 of the filter / Max. opening of pipe

drain  2