A Comprehensive Guide
 for Every Progressive Farmer !

 N
  O  H C a     K S   P   O
  P H    2   5

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 C u
 u M o  o    I M   
 g    C a O 
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e  C a 
M    M o 
 g   O  (Copyright IMT, PUNE - INDIA)
H  K  
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IMT TECHNOLOGIES LTD.
Shrikrishna, Krishnakeval Nagar, 1-A, Kondhwa Khurd, Pune - 411048, Maharashtra.
    FAX :   HELPLINE :
TEL : (020)
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 www.ranadey.com   Email : rmpl@ranadey.com
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In Memory of Our Founder

Plant Nutrition has now taken on the coveted role of being a stand-alone subject in universities
universiti es
worldwide. Dr. Konrad Mengel is the acclaimed 'Father of Plant Nutrition'.
Nutrit ion'. However in India, 50
years ago, the pioneer of Plant Nutrition was Shri. S. N. Ranade and we do consider him the
'Father of Micronutrient Industry in India'.

Mr. S. N. Ranade was a microbiologist and was involved in the field of micronutrient research
since 1967. He started the Institute for Micronutrient Research in Pune, India and worked on
crop and soil specific requirements of essential nutrients. His stress was on micronutrients and
their role in higher qualitative and quantitative yields.

We conduct applied research on Balanced Plant Nutrition. In keeping with our founder
Shri. S. N. Ranade's ideologies of training the farmer to become more independent, we have
decided to publish a manual with some key concepts of Plant Nutrition.
Nutritio n.

We hope that this information will prove beneficial

benefi cial in your understanding of the concept
of Balanced Plant Nutrition in general and the role and need for Micronutrients in Plant
Nutrition.

If we can be of any technical assistance

assi stance in the future, please feel free to contact us and we
will do our best to answer your queries.
queri es.

1
 

Introduction and Basic Concepts

Every farmer's main aim is to produce the maximum from his land. In earlier times when

agriculture was their

enough to meet 'merely a profession',
nutritional needs. Infarmers cultivated
addition, the soils local
were varieties that rich
considerably produced well
in nutrients
and the farmer could afford to leave his land fallow for a year or two. These practices helped in
maintaining the physical and chemical properties as well as the nutrient supplying capacities of
the soil. However, the conditions of today are very different. It all started with the ''Green
Revolution'' which emphasized on maximum crop production. Therefore, the farmer started
intensive cultivation of early-maturing, high yielding varieties without paying much attention to
the soil-nutrient status and soil health. Continuous cultivation with inefficient management of
nutrient inputs has resulted in a threefold effect.

  Decrease in Yields - Qualitative and Quantitative : This point does not need much
  explanation as the farmers have felt the pinch themselves.

  Effect on the Consumer-Malnutrition : You are what you eat. All animals and humans are
  dependent directly or indirectly on plants for their food. By linear logic, we can state that if the
  quality of the food we eat is sub-optimal we are going to be malnutritioned
malnutritioned.. Agriculture
  should now start paying attention to producing enough food of high nutritional quality and
  diversity.

 Environmental Concerns : Inefficient management of nutrient inputs has put a large

  constraint on the environment. Indiscriminate use of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers
  have led to ground water problems which come back to haunt us through our drinking water 
  supply.
It is imperative for farmers
farmer s to pay close attention to nutrient management and incorporate
incorporat e
the concept of Balanced Plant Nutrition into their farming techniques.
What are the causes behind these problems ?
 Farmers are still employing the same old cultural practices for native, low yielding varieties
  as well as newer high yielding varieties.
 They are treating the depleted soils of today as they would the richer soils of yester years.
 They are overly dependent on organic manures.
 There is no middle path in their cultural practices; they are either completely organic or
completely chemical, both of which
whic h are not sustainable in the long run.
 Farm management is still based on the aim of cutting costs rather than maximizing
maximi zing yields.

It is truly the era of the progressive farmer-one

farmer-one who is pro-active and who wants to play a
new game with a new set of rules. As the world population continues to increase, we must
use all means possible to maximize the efficiency
efficiency of food and fiber production. What tools
can we bring to the table to increase our ability to grow food more efficiently? 

2
 

Basic Requirements for Crop Growth

Plant Physiology is a build up physiology
while human and animal physiology is a
break down physiology. What this means is
that plants utilize raw materials to produce
end products which we use for food and
energy. The process of photosynthesis is a
key in this build up physiology. Though an
extremely complicated process, below is a
simplified version of this process. Plants use
simple raw material like carbon dioxide,
water and in the presence of sunlight they
convert these into various sugars and
starches. These would constitute as the
external conditions which could affect crop
growth rate and yield.
Now every plant is controlled by its genetic
code. This code determines the maximum
inherent potential of a crop to produce.
maximized 
However, this potential will be maximized 
only under
only  under conditions of optimal external and
internal conditions. What this means is that
even if all optimal external conditions are
provided to the plant, optimal photosynthesis
will take place only if the genetic potential of
the crop is optimized. How to optimize both
internal and external conditions to the best of
our abilities is what we will discuss.

6CO2+12H2O  C6H12O6+6O2+6H2O

WHAT CONTROLS FINAL YIELD

External Conditions

Internal Conditions

Genetic Potential

OPTIMAL GROWTH

SIMPLIFIED
PROCESS OF  YIELD
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Chlorophyll, the green pigment in Converted into starch

leaves is quintessential to the and other forms of 
process of photosynthesis food that get stored in
the plant.
Sugars are
produced as
end products of 
WATER photosynthesis
absorbed from
the roots
Oxygen is liberated
Carbon dioxide from into the atmosphere
the atmosphere is as a by - product of 
used as a source photosynthesis
of carbon

3
 

All Elements are Essential for Plant Growth

 B

MICRONUTRIENTS  Mo  Cu Ni MICRONUTRIENTS

 Fe  Mn Zn

SECONDARY   SECONDARY
NUTRIENTS Se Ca Mg  S  Si NUTRIENTS

MAJOR
NUTRIENTS
N P K MAJOR
NUTRIENTS

C H O CI
NATURAL NUTRIENTS

 Essential for Some Plants

IMT TECHNOLOGIES
1-A, Kondhwa Khurd, Pune 411 048,LTD.
INDIA.

4
 

1st Principle of Agriculture - Essentiality of Nutrients

Seventeen Nutrients are Essential for Plant Growth

1. Provided by nature - Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Chlorine

2. Macronutrients - Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium - requirement of plant is > 500mg/kg

3. Secondary Nutrients - Calcium, Magnesium, Sulphur 

4. Micronutrients - lron, Manganese, Zinc, Copper, Molybdenum, Boron, Nickel-requirement

  of plant <100mg/kg

All these nutrients satisfy the three rules

r ules of essentiality of Arnon and Stout :

  Plant can not carry out life cycle without the nutrient.

  Nutrient must play a role in plant metabolism-either physiological or biochemical.

  No other nutrient can replace function of the nutrient in question.

Ratio between nutrients is important for efficient crop usage

Considerable research has suggested that application of the nutrients in correct ratios to the
crop can significantly improve the qualitative and quantitative crop yields. Plants are quite
fastidious when uptake of nutrients is concerned and they preferentially exclude or absorb
nutrients based on the concentration of nutrients provided to them. There is a pre-determined

ratio of nutrients that is required by the plant system, depending on its life cycle, environment
and its genotypic charateristics. Maximum results are obtained from the addition of
micronutrients only when
whe n major and secondary nutrients are present in adequate amounts and
in a balance required by the crop.

5
 

2nd Principle of Agriculture - Mitscherlich’s Curve

Crop Yield is proportional to the ratio of assimilated nutrients. This is represented by

Mitscherlich's curve. Crop Yield can be summed up as the total effect of all the essential
nutrients in the required proportions in a given time. The chart below has been colour coded
and modified by our Institute. The various
va rious areas are explained below.

 Yield and
an d dise
d isease
ase res
resista
istance
nce inc
increa
reases
ses pro
propo
portio
rtionat
nately
ely
to the increase in the uptake of nutrients
nu trients
A  Under such low fertilizer input
  conditions, there are a number of 
F Disease Resistance Line   factors that limit growth and
Optimum Yield   development of the crop. Deficiency
symptoms are expressed on the
plant parts and yield is compromised.
Correspondingly, disease resistance
e
nc F  B  F of crop is low.
at C B  This is the condition of hidden
si D
s hunger. What
hunger.  What this means is
e that nutrient inputs are sufficient
R
e enough so that the plant may not
s
a show any symptoms of nutrient
e
si deficiency. However, yields will
D B E
d be reduced and the quality of the
n produce will also be sub-optimal.
a
ld C  This Is the
the part of the curve that
that
ei
Y the crop should ideally be in. Here
f
o A the right amount and the right
% balance of nutrients is provided to
the crop hence assuring top

quality and quantity of yields.

D  Increasing fertilizer inputs do not
Copyright : Institute For Micronutrient Technology, Pune
lead to a proportional increase in
(%) of Fertilizer
yield. This region is also called the
area of "diminishing returns." Inputs
A Deficiency Zone far exceed the output.

B Hidden Hunger  E  Toxicity range. In this area,

nutrient inputs far exceed what the
C Optimum Growth plant requires and such high
D  Diminishing Returns concentration proves toxic to the
crop. The crop will exhibit toxicity
E Toxicity
symptoms.
F Disease Resistance Line F  The inherent immunity of the plant to
  fight disease

6
 

3rd Principle of Agriculture - Liebig’s Law of Minimum

Justus Von Liebig, father of the fertilizer industry formulated the Law of Minimum. The Law

states that the nutrient that is available to the plant in the least / Iimiting amount is what will lead
to a decrease in yield even if other nutrients are available in optimal quantities.
quantit ies. This concept can
be explained by a bucket with staves of varying lengths. Each stave represents a component
that is essential for the plant's life cycle. The capacity of this barrel is limited by the length of the
shortest stave (in this case, Boron) and can be increased only by increasing that stave.

It is extremely important to understand this concept. It comes in handy when a farmer has to
decide which nutrients to spend money on. The Law of the Minimum
Minim um takes on added importance
when fertilizer prices
pric es especially the BIG 3 (NPK) are high. This may tempt some of the farmers
to reduce or even eliminate applications of micronutrient or secondary nutrient fertilizers. But
Liebig's law explains clearly that if a soil is deficient in, say boron, yields will be depressed
regardless of how much NPK is applied. So, such a course of action does not make sense at any
time, but can be especially ill-considered
ill-conside red during periods of elevated price of NPK products.

    S
   N     S
   N     D
   E    N SUITABLE     D
    N    E    N SUITABLE     N
   E    N    G    E CONDITIONS
    A
   E    N    G    E CONDITIONS
    A
    R
   N    O    G     R
   R    N    O    G     B    R
   I    O    R    YOF SOIL & ENVIRONMENT     B
 
   E    I    O    R    YOF SOIL & ENVIRONMENT  
    D    E
   R    B    X     D
    I    R   B    X     I    T
   O
   L    R
   A    D
   Y    O FOR GROWTH     R
    B    A
   T    O
   L    R
   A    D
   Y    O FOR GROWTH     R
    B
   A
   W
   H    C    H     Y    W
    H    H   C    H     Y
    H
   C    C

Boron is

   M
limiting    E
   T        S    M
   E        U        M   U
   T        S    U
       M   I    A        R    M    I
       U    S
       U        U    S
   A    M    R    U
factor here
       R        O       E        N    E
   R
       N    E
   T        H    I       S        E
   T
       O
       H
   U
   I       E
   R
       E    N    I        P    S    M    R       E    R        D    N
   I    S    M    R       S        D
       B    G    N        S    S    U    E        B    G
       P
   N    U       E    E        Y    A    I    U    N       N    C        Y    A
   N        S    S    U    C    P
       O
   A    N    P        L
       O    I    O    H    N       N        L    M        H
   T    C    N    H    O       A    I    P        O
   M
   A
   I    P
   P    O       A    N    L    P
   C        O        P       G
       H
   T    R        M    O    R
   O    L    I    Z    O        M
       P    L    O    R       G    Z    O
   L    I    A    R    U       N
   O    A       N    C    P    C       A    C
   P    B    U    O    S
   C    S       A       M
      M
   B

7
 

Soil as a Growth Medium

Soil Concepts
Minerals 45 %

Soil is defined as a thin layer of the earth's

crust, which serves as a medium for the
growth of plants. It is a natural body of
animal, mineral, and organic constituents
differentiated into horizons of variable depth, Organic
which differ from the material below in Matter 
5%
morphology, physical makeup, chemical
SOLIDS
properties, compositions, and biological
characteristics.
Good soil nutrition is the solution to many of
the problems afflicting agriculture. Insect
pests, diseases and weeds are all directly
Water   Air 
related to poor soil health. There is an 'ideal' 25% 25%
state of balance between the physical,
chemical and biological components of the
soil, at which production is maximized and 2. 'Soil Water' or Soil Solution 
Solution  is the liquid
pest and weed pressure is greatly reduced. phase of the soil containing dissolved salts
This 'ideal' state is what every farmer should and chemicals (ions) that are free floating
try to attain. and not attached to any solid particles
(mineral surfaces).
Soil is the most UNDERVALUED and
OVERLOOKED component in a plant 3. 'Soil Minerals' are composed of varying
growth system. amounts of sand, silt and clay. These
particles are not derived from materials that
Composition of Soil are inorganic in nature. Their characteristics
Soil is the interface between air, water, greatly influence soil characteristics,
minerals and living organisms.
organism s. These are the behavior and management practices.
four major components of soil and it is
4. 'Soil Organic' Matter (SOM) 
(SOM)  in the soil
important to understand the contributions of
includes plant and animal residues at
these components to soil productivity and
various stages of decomposition. Cells,
fertility. These components determine the
tissues and substances synthesized by
kind and type of soils.
plant roots and soil microorganisms
1. 'Soil Air'
Air' refers
 refers to the soil atmosphere; constitute SOM. Most cultivated top soils
the gaseous phase of the soil that is contain about 2-4% organic matter by

neither solid nor liquid. weight.

8
 

Function of Soil and Soil Constituents

Functions of Soil
Soil provides crops with :
  Water and Nutrients
  Physical support
  A chemical and physical environment for roots to carry out their functions.
   A habitat for microbes (which play an important role in Carbon and plant nutrient
nutri ent cycling)

SoiI Constituents
There are three main constituents of soil: sand, silt and clay.
Sand

Particle Size (mm) Other Properties

Sand 2.00 - 0.05 Grains are rounded or irregular.
ir regular.
Not sticky when wet. Has
H as no plasticity.
Low Water Holding Capacity. High
amount of leaching. Good drainage Silt
and aeration.

Silt 0.05 - 0.002 Properties in between sand and clay.

Clay < 0.002 Very small particles.

Grains are sticky when wet. Has a high Clay
degree of plasticity. High Water
Holding Capacity. Low amount of
leaching, poor drainage and aeration.

Type of soil based on

 % of Sand  % of Silt  % of Clay
soil constituent content
Light  70-80 10-20 10
Medium 30-70 20-50 10-20
Heavy/Black Alluvial Soil 20-30 50-60 20-30

9
 

Soil Formation and Soil Profile

Climate

10Determines
increase nature of weathering.
o
C increase in temperat
temperature
ure doubles
doubles
the rate of chemical reaction.

Time Living Organisms

The length of time that  Organic matter
the material has been accumulation, profile mixing,
subjected to weathering nutrient cycling,
will determine structural stability are all
soil formation. enhanced by soil organisms.
Soil Formation
and Soil Type
are Affected by
5 Factors

Topography Parent Material

The topography of the land Chemical and mineralogical
speed up or slows down the composition of parent material
weathering process. and weathering forces
Hill slopes weather faster  determine final soil
than flat lands. characteristics.

O Horizon : Organic
: Organic matter,
matt er, decomposed layer.
Occupies up to 25 cm of soil surface.

A Horizon / Zone of Eluviation (erosion)

Eluviation (erosion) :
Top most mineral layer. Contains some decomposed
material thus darker in colour. Coarser in structure.
E Horizon / Zone of maximum Leaching
Leachi ng : Lighter in
  e
   l
   i
   f colour than A. Common in forest soils. Contains
C ontains clay,
  o
  r Fe and AI oxides.
   P B Horizon / Zone of Accumulation / llluviation
llluvi ation :
   l
   i
  o  Accumulation
 Accumula tion of materials like Fe, AI oxides in
   S
humid regions.
C Horizon : Little
: Little weathered zone above the
bedrock. This layer determines the final nature of 
the soil.

BEDROCK

10
 

Physical
Physical Properties of Soil

1. Aggregation :  :  Is the arrangement of soil

  particles into groups in the soil like clods,
prism, plates.     Y
   A
P   
   L E    
   C R   
    T 
C   
   N
E    
2. Soil Texture : Is the proportion of sand, silt    E
N    
   C
T    
 S   
  and clay in the soil. The soil triangle helps    R
   E I    
L  T    
  define the texture of the soil depending on    P
  the percentage of sand, silt and clay in the
  given soil. The Soil Triangle assists in
  determining the type of soil
soil based
 based on the
  percentage of the three constituents.
PERCENT SAND
3. Soil Structure : Is the arrangement of soil
  particles in the soil pedon. There are four 
  types of soil structures.    whereas in clay
volume will soils pore space per unit
be high.
4. Tilth : 
:  Is the physical condition of soil as
  explained by its ease of tillage, capacity to 7. Bulk Density (BD) : Is
: Is the mass of a unit
  support a healthy seed bed and support   volume of dry soil, including solid and
  root penetration.   pore space. The factors that affect bulk
  density are :
5. Infiltration : Is the downward movement of 
  Soil Structure - loosely packed grains have
  water into the soil. Texture/structur
exture/structure
e of the
  more pore space and hence higher BD.
  soil determines the infiltration rate and
  drainage capacity and the amount of water    Soil texture - Clay soils have a lower BD
  present in the soil. Infiltration rate in turn   than sandy soils.
  determines the aeration and temperature
  of the soil.   Depth of soil layer - Deeper layers usually
  have higher BD.
6. Porosity : Is
: Is the volume of soil occupied by
   BD increases due to compaction effects.
  pore space. The pore space of a soil is a
  portion of soil volume occupied by air and   Amount of OM - higher the OM, higher the
  water. The amount of this pore space is   pore space, thus lower the BD.
  determined by the arrangement of the soil
  particles. In sandy soils, porosity is low,   A typical medium textured soil will have a
  BD = 1.25 mg/m.

Presmatic/Columnar Polyhedra/Blocky Platy/Laminated Granular  

Soil Structure

11
 

Chemical
Chemical Properties of Soil

pH : The Master
Mast er Variable
The degree of acidity or alkalinity in the soil is
expressed on the pH scale. pH ranges from
0-14, where 0-7 is acidic and 7-14 is alkaline.
Most plants and microbes are optimally
sustained between pH 5.5-7.5. pH is read on a
LOG SCALE.

How pH Affects Soil Properties

Changes in pH bring about changes in plant
available nutrients, which affect plant Red Lateritic Soil having Acidic pH
metabolism and eventually plant growth and
yield.

   pH determines the number and the kind of

soil organisms that will be present in the soil,
which are key in turning organic matter into
plant available forms.
   pH indirectly affects soil aggregate stability,
aeration, drainage etc.
   pH determines the availability of soil
nutrients to the plant.

Saline Soil
What Changes pH ?

   Several forms of Nitrogen fertilizers reduce

pH.
   Application of lime increases pH.
   Using irrigation water containing soluble
salts will increase pH.
   Application of Elemental Sulphur decreases
pH.

Sodic Soil

12
 

Implications for Acidic and Alkaline Soil pH

Acidic Soil Implications

+ 3+ 3+
  In acidic soils the H , Fe and Al ion concentr
concentration
ation is high. These ions usually combine
  with other ions like Ca, Mg, N, S and Mo and make them unavailable for plant uptake.
   Compared to alkaline soil, slightly acidic soil have a higher micronutrient availability.
   Apply lime or Dolomite to ameliorate soils with pH between 4 and 6.

Alkaline Soil Implications

2+ 2+ - - + +
   In alk
alkali
aline
ne so
soils
ils Ca , Mg , OH , Cl an
and
d oth
other
er ba
base
se for
formin
ming
g ca
catio
tions
ns lik
like
e Na , K dom
domina
inate.
te.
- 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
   Th
The
e OH io
ions
ns te
tend
nd to co
comb
mbin
ine
e wi
with
th Fe , Mn , Zn an
and
d Cu an
and
d ma
make
ke th
them
em un
unav
avai
aila
labl
ble
e

  for plant uptake.

 To reduce alkalinity in the
t he soil, Gypsum or Magnesium
Magne sium salt application
applicati on is suggested. Apply
  Gypsum in soils with a pH of 8.3 and higher.

Soil pH Chart
Optimal pH for plant and microorganism
microorgani sm growth is 6.5-7 as seen on the chart.
Our IMT colour-coded chart depicts the essential nutrients and their availability in the soil at
varying pH.
 After studying the attached chart, the farmer must try to correlate his soil pH with the chart and
anticipate the nutrients which
wh ich are likely to fall short. A soil test will confirm the nutrients
nut rients that may
be limited due to soil pH being out of the optimal range.

Salinity and Sodicity :

There is a lot of confusion with respect to the definitions of salinity and sodicity. Both can be
termed as alkaline soils but they differ dramatically in their physical
physic al and chemical properties and
hence it is imperative to understand the difference between these two!

13
 

How Soil pH Affects Availability of Plant Nutrients

ACID ACID ACID ALKALI ALKALI ALKALI

STRONG ACID MEDIUM SLIGHT VERY VERY SLIGHT MEDIUM   STRONG ALKALI
SLIGHT SLIGHT

NITROGEN

PHOSPHORUS

POTASSIUM

SULPHUR

CALCIUM

MAGNESIUM

IRON

MANGANESE

BORON

COPPER & ZINC

MOLYBDENUM

4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0
pH 4 TO 6 - pH 8.3 AND ABOVE -
USE LIME / DOLOMITE USE GYPSUM / MAGNESIUM SULPHATE

The availability of nutrients to plants is graphically represented by the thickness of the bar. As 
As the
thickness of the bar increases, the availability
availabil ity of the nutrient also increases and vice-versa. The
ideal or optimal availability is represented by green bars. The orange bars represent marginal
availability. Red bars represent very little or no availability. Black bars represent the condition
under which the nutrient in question may be present but it will not be available to the plant due to
the absence of complimentary elements and other complex soil interactions.
Courtsey E. TRUOG, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN (U.S.A.)
COMPUTED & DESIGNED BY
SHRI S. N. RANADE

IMT TECHNOLOGIES
1-A, Kondhwa Khurd, Pune 411 048,LTD.
INDIA.
 14

Saline and Sodic Soils

A SALINE soil
SALINE soil contains excessive soluble salts (chlorides
(chlorid es and sulfates) of Ca, Mg, Na and K.

 These soils usually have moderate aeration and drainage.

 These soils do not constrain plant growth BUT impair optimal yields in crops.
 Soluble salts are brought to the soil by evaporation of water, forming a white crust on the
  surface and are hence termed as 'white alkali' soils.
A SODIC 
SODIC  soil on the other hand is a soil that has a high accumulation of sodium salts in
particular.
 These soils have poor drainage and extremely poor aeration.
+ - -
 Plant
Plant growth
growth in these
these soils
soils is
is constrai
constrained
ned by
by toxic
toxic levels
levels of Na , OH , and HCO3 ions
ions..
 Often the surface of such soils has a black coloration to it due to the dispersed humus/
  colloidal matter that is brought to the surface by capillary action of water. Hence, these soils
  are termed as 'black alkali' soils.
The following parameters are used to quantify the sodic / saline nature
natur e of soils -
E. C. : The amount of soluble salts in soil is measured by Electrical Conductivity (E. C.). It is
  expressed in deci siemens per meter (dS/m).
ESP : The
: The percentage of exchangeable complex saturated with Sodium is measured as the
  ESP (Exchangeable Sodium Percentage). ESP greater than 15 is associated
  with soil pH greater than 8.5 ESP = Exchangeable sodium (cmolc/kg)* 100/CEC
  (cmolc/kg)
SAR : Sodium
: Sodium Adsorption Ratio is the ratio of Sodium ions to Calcium and Magnesium ions in
the soil solution.
   Na
+
SAR
  (meq / Iit)  = 2+ 2+
[(Ca ) + (Mg )]
2

  Saline Saline-Sodic   Sodic

- 2-
Cause of Problem Cl , SO4 salts of  Soluble salts of Na, K, Ca, Mg High concentration
Na, K, Ca, Mg and
and conce
concentr
ntrati
ation
ons Na2CO3 of Na2CO3
s of Na
EC  4 dS/m > 4 dS/m < 4 dS/m

ESP < 15 > 15 > 15

SAR < 13 > 13  > 13

pH < 8.5 < 8.5  > 8.5

 15

Cation Exchange
Exchange Capacity (CEC)

Cation Exchange Capacity is defined as the ability of the soil to hold onto nutrients (positively
2+ 2+ + +
charg
charged
ed ion
ionss like-
like- Ca , Mg , K , NH4 ) and
and prev
preven entt them
them from
from leac
leachin
hing
g beyon
beyond d the
the roots
roots.. The
The
more cation exchange capacity a soil has, the more likely the soil will have a higher fertility level.
When combined with other measures of soil fertility,
fertil ity, CEC is a good indicator of soil quality and
productivity.

It is the amount of cations that can be held by 100g of soil units : 1 milliequivalent of charge per 
100g of soil. CEC ranges from < 1 meq/100g in sandy soils low in OM to > 25 meq/100g in soils
high in certain types of clay or OM. Soil OM will develop a greater CEC at near-neutral pH than
under acidic conditions. Addition of organic matter will increase
incr ease a soil's CEC. Soil CEC may also
decrease with time through acidification and OM decomposition.

The CEC of soils is determined

determin ed by :

  The amount of organic matter in soil as well as the percentage of clay.

clay. Higher the OM and
  clay, higher the CEC of soils, thus higher the nutrients provided in available form to plants,
  thus higher fertility and productivity of soils.
 The type of clay in the soil also determines the CEC of the soil.
 pH of soils

In a 'balanced' soil, Calcium accounts for about 65-70% of the CEC,

CEC , Magnesium 10-15% of the
CEC, Potassium about 4.5% of CEC, Sodium 2% of CEC, trace Elements 3% and Hydrogen
about 10% of CEC. Ca/Mg ratio should always add up to 80% of soil CEC.

The CEC
ladder,
ladder Al also
, Al
3+ depends
is more on the
tightly streng
strength
bound
bound th ofclay
to the adsorption
particleofinthe
particle soilcations.
cati ons.isAccording
than to theK+
K+ and hence
K+ adsorption
is more
3+
readily available to plants
pl ants than Al

3+ 2+ 2+ + + +
 Al > Ca > Mg > K = NH4 > Na

- - AI
3+
2+
Ca 2+
- AI
3+
- - Ca
- 2+
Clay Particle Soil Solution Clay Particle Mg
+
K   Na
+

+
- - Mg
2+ +
- -K Soil Solution
H
- Na+ - - H+
-

16
 16

Biological Properties of Soil

Biomass of Soil
It is the measure of living material in the soil including
includin g microorganisms, insects, plants
plan ts and small
animals. It is important in determining
determ ining the potential organic matter content
conte nt in soils as well as the
soil health and tilth.

Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio (C:N)

Carbon and Nitrogen are two key elements that are required by all organisms to complete their
life cycle since both are used as building blocks for the organism / plant. The C:N ratio in soils
ranges from 8:1 to 15:1, while in plants such as legumes,
legum es, it ranges from 10:1 to 30:1, to as high
as 80:1 in wheat straw.

There are two key reasons for understanding the importance of this ratio.

1. The competition between microorganisms and plants increases when high C:N ratios
C:N ratios are
  added to the soil. This leads to N deficiency in plants as explained in the graphic.

2. The ratio helps to determine the rate of decay of residues added to the soil and hence how
  and when these nutrients will be available to plants.

C:N ratios of < 20-25 : 1 are generally preferred for organic matter additions.

> 25:1 C:N < 25:1

Ratio Optimal
High C C High
Excessive C N growth
growth of bacteria,
of bacteria, mineralization
not enough N of N begins,
for  plants get
plant growth, optimal
thus N amounts,
deficiency hence no
in plants deficiency
symptoms
 17

Soil Productivity and Fertility

Though used interchangeably there is a clear distinction between soil productivity and soil fertility.

Soil Productivity

It is the capacity of the soil to support optimal crop growth

grow th when the soil is cultivated in an
appropriate fashion- i.e. supplying the soils with organic as well as mineral nutrients.
of YIELD / UNIT
It is quantified in terms of YIELD UNIT.. It can be improved by:
  Following Balanced Plant Nutrition Concepts

  Reclaiming Problematic Soils

  Adopting Crop Rotation Programs

  Adopting Proper Irrigation Practices

Soil Fertility

It is the "inherent capacity" of the soil to support crop growth, i.e. through already present nutrient
reserves. It can be improved by:
  Application of Organic Manures on a regular basis

  Green Manuring

  Use of Proper Irrigation Practices

  Following optimal Cultural Practices

ALL FERTILE SOILS ARE NOT PRODUCTIVE

BUT
ALL PRODUCTIVE SOILS ARE NECESSARILY FERTILE SOILS

Basic Truths of Profitable Fertility Practices

  Lower inputs, such as cutting back on fertilizer rates, can lead to lower yields and profits
  (Mitscherlich's Curve).
  Optimum and balanced fertility helps ensure Maximum Economic
Economic Yield and lessens the effects
effects
  of adverse weather, diseases and pests.
  Other factors like good seed, chemicals,
chemicals, machinery or cultural practices will not profit a farmer if 
  he allows the fertility of his soil to run down.
 18

Soil Productivity Index

Soil Productivity Index

Once we haveTHEY
PRODUCTIVE established
ARE. In that
orderthe soils are
to quantify thisproductive,
amount, wewe have
at the to understand
Institute establiHOW
have established
shed
a SOIL PRODUCTIVITY INDEX. We grade the soils based on soil quality, nutrient supplying
efficiency, water holding capacity and the expenditure involved in producing a healthy
healt hy crop from
that soil.

Grade Soil quality SPI Expenditure on Soil Expenditure on

Health Maintenance Maximizing output of crop
I  Above Averag
Average
e >80% 30% 70%
II  Average
 Average 60-80% 50% 50%
III Below Average <60% 60% 40%

Ideal Productivity SPI > 90%

SPI > 90 %
NO buildup of soil quality required BUT Maintenance of current
productivity necessary
I  
n
HIGH VALUE CROPS LIKE HORTlCULTURAL CROPS AS WELL
 c
 AS VEGETA
VEGETABLESBLES CAN BE GROWN.
GROWN. r 
 e
 a
SPI = 80-90 %  s
i  
n
MINOR buildup of soil quality required
 g
HIGH VALUE CROPS
CANLIKE HORTICULTURAL CROPS
BE GROWN. n
 u
 t  
SPI = 70-80 % r 
i  
 e
MODEST buildup of soil quality required
HIGHER VALUE CROPS - VEGETABLES CAN BE GROWN. n
 t  
 c
SPI = 60-70 %  o
MODERATE buildup of soil n
 t  
quality required  e
n
ONLY LOW VALUE CROPS LIKE  t  
CEREALS, PULSES, COTTON  a
 AND OIL SEEDS CAN BEBE n
 d 
GROWN SUSTAINABLY.
 S 
P 
SPI < 60 % I  
SUBSTANTIAL
build up of soil ONLY
quality LOW VALUE CROPS LIKE

required CEREALS CAN BE

GROWN SUSTAINABLY
SUSTAINABLY..
 19

Soil Productivity Index

SOIL NUTRIENT RELATIVE SOURCE OF NUTRIENTS COST OF

STATUS & SUPPLIMENTA
SUPPLIM ENTATION
TION INPUTS

VERY HIGH = Above 90% SOIL *FERT. 20%

HIGH = 80 - 90% SOIL FERT. 30%

MEDIUM = 70 - 80% SOIL FERT. 45%

LOW = 60 - 70% SOIL FERT. 70%

VERY LOW = 60 % SOIL **   FERT. 85%

Courtesy : The Potash & Phosphate Institute Atlanta, Ga

* Very high soil nutrient status coupled with low cost of inputs enables the
the farmer to get higher 
  production.
** If the soil health remains poor and if the soil nutrient status remains very low,
low, in spite of 
  application of higher fertilizer doses, crop yields will not improve.

Even though the farmer wishes to have yields at the level of 85-90% of the genetic potential, in reality
he gets lower yields (50-55%). But by expecting the full 90% yield he applies heavy fertilizers.
Management and excessive use of nutrient inputs will neither boost yield nor reduce farm
expenditure.
Our system of FPRP (Fertilizer Programme Related to Production) is designed to make the farmer
understand that the soil has an important role to play in the release of nutrients. Crops grown on poor
soil will invariably produce lower yields. Lower yields in such a situation will not be boosted by simply
increasing the fertilizer inputs. If soil correction measures are instituted, the cost of input should be in
the range of 20-30% of the final yield income. It is prudent for a farmer to analyze his soil and make
the necessary changesI
changes I improvements to maximize his soil and crop potential.
The key lies in sustainable maintenance of soil health through rationalized fertilizer and
organic manure applications.

Modified & Produced by

Dr. S. S. Ranade

IMT TECHNOLOGIES
1-A, Kondhwa Khurd, Pune 411 048,LTD.
INDIA.
 20

Availability of Nutrients to Crops from the Soil

Water Soluble Zone

Smallest zone, size of this zone

depends on solubility of elements
and mobility of nutrients in soil.
 Availability of most nutrients is
limited in this
t his zone. Spraying N, P, P, K,
M gS O 4 a n d M i c n e l f h e lp s t o
increase this zone.

Exchangeable Zone
Small zone as well, availability of
nutrients depends on AEC/CEC
Major cations are usually available,
micronutrients and P, S are less
available.

Fixed and Reverted Non-Soluble

Zone
P, Ca, Mg, K, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu are
elements that are reverted or
converted to carbonates/oxides.
Nutrients in this zone are in
fixed/unavailable form but migration

into
them exchangeable
available. Usezone makes
of Boracol
increases the available nutrients in
this zone.

Rock Zone :
Largest zone of unavailable
nutrients. The nutrients are in fixed
form and this zone is of no
importance for nutrient provision of
the current crops.
 Weathering Zone 
Zone 
Large zone in which nutrients are
not micronized. From a crop-
production stand point; this zone is
not of any importance because
nutrients are in unavailable forms. It
takes many years for nutrients in
this zone to reach the fixed /reverted
zone.
 21

Soil Organic Matter (SOM)

What is SOM?

Organic matter is anything that is living or was once alive. SOM includes plant and animal
remains in various stages of decomposition. Cells and tissues of soil organisms as well as
substances produced by the soil microbes constitute SOM. Humus is the stable portion of SOM
that is well decomposed. It comprises 60-80% of SOM. It is characterized by dark brown,
porous, spongy material with a pleasant, earthy smell. Humic material is composed of aromatic
and ring compounds like phenols and polyquinones. Due to their complex structure, they are
most resistant to microbial attack. All SOM contains Carbon as a key component. SOM contains
the principal reserve of N (90-95%), P and S compounds in the soil. It is a source of
polysaccharides that aid in soil aggregation.
aggregation . SOM provides 30-70% of soil CEC.

Inorganic Ash
5%
Nitrogen
5%

Carbon
50%
Oxygen
35%

Hydrogen
5%

Composition of SOM
Fresh OM is made up of three classes :
   N-free Organic compounds : such as polysaccharides
polysaccharide s which enhance soil aggregation.
   N-containing compounds : such as proteins.
   Inorganic / Mineral constituents
constituen ts which make up a small percent of total OM.
 22

Functions of SOM

Function in Improving Soil Physical Properties

  Increases Aggregate Stability
  Decreases stickiness of soil
  Increases water-holding capacity

Functions in Improving Soil Chemical Properties

  SOM is a potent chelating agent-thus aids in mobilizing organically bound elements like Fe,
  Mg and AI.
  SOM has high CEC, thus holds high amount of nutrient cations in easily exchangeable

  forms.
  Increases pH-buffering capacity of soils.


  Its high negative charge helps prevent positively charged nutrients from leaching. Per equal
  weight, humus has 30-40 times the negative charge of many types of clay and can
  account for the major part of a soil's nutrient-holding ability. ln addition, negative charge
  improves a soil's buffering capacity- its ability to resist changes in pH.
  Humic acids attack soil minerals and release essential nutrients
nut rients into soluble pool.
  Organic acids chelate minerals- thus nutrients become more available to plants.

Functions in Improving Soil Biological Properties

  Provides food for heterotrophic soil organisms - (required for Nitrogen Fixation, other 
  microbiological processes).

Functions in Plant System at the Cellular Level

  Increases density of cell sap.
  Aids in formation of new roots that travel to greater depths and increases ratio of root : shoot.

  Reduces the transpiration rate.

 Increases the rate of photosynthetic activity

activi ty..

Functions in Ameliorating Environmental Effects

  Reduces the negative environmental effects of pesticides, heavy metals and many other 
  pollutants by tying them up in plant-unavailable forms.
 23

Humus Formation in Soils

Factors Affecting its formation

Environmental Factors :
 Near neutral pH

 Sufficient soil moisture

 Good aeration

 Warm temperatures (25°-35°C),

  Composting requires higher temperature

  50°-75°C
 Type of microorganisms

 Cultural practices like tillage, drainage,

  fertilizati
fertilization,
on, irrigation.
Quality of Added Residues
 C : N ratio of residues
 Placement of residue - on / in soil
 Percentage of lignins and polyphenols

Decomposition of Organic Matter 

Aerobic Decomposition
In the presence of Oxygen, organic matter
decomposes readily to gaseous forms like
CO2, Ammo
Ammonia,
nia, free N and
and H2O. Organi
Organic
c
matter disappears more rapidly in warm, dry
climate and under high temperatures.
Anaerobic Decomposition
Most of the decomposing organisms like
bacteria are aerobic; they need Oxygen to It is important to understand that the microbes
decompose material. In the absence of govern the process of decomposition.
Oxygen, the bacterial count reduces Conditions that allow for optimum growth of 
dramatically and the decomposition process bacteria will assist in easy decomposition of 
slows down considerably. Only some organic material.
anaerobic bacteria (whose concentration in
Decomposition proceeds with ease under
the soil is low) can perform the
aerobic condition, warm temperatures,
decomposition.
optimum moisture and optimum nutrients.
 24

Types of Organic Matter 

Farm  Compost  Sheep  Poultry  Oil Cakes Meal Manures   Sewage

 Yard
 Yard and and
Manure Goat Sludge
General Decomposed  Decomposed Dropping Solid  After    Animal based Underground
Charac- mixture of   mixture of   of sheep excreta  extraction of  manures made sewage night
teristic cattle twigs, roots, and of  poultry oil the of  blood,
blood,  meat, soil and urine
dung, urine,  leaves,
leaves,  crop goats birds,  remaining  fish, horns and dissolved in
straw and residues, decomposes fibrous  hoofs  water 
residues hedge quickly material  much higher 
from clippings is a source  in NPK
cattle feed street refuse of  NPK

Other  Decomposition Decomposition Ferments Insoluble in Usually  May be high in

Facts in soil outside soil quickly water, applied heavy metals
most in composting decomposed to acidic soils  like Co, Cd,
commonly piles by microbes and Ni
used

N % 0.5 - 1.5 - 3 1 2.5 2-13 -

P2O5  % 0.2 - 0.9 - 1 1 1 1-25 -
K2O % 0.5 - 1.9 - 2 0.5 1 0.5-1 -

- -
Method Incorporate Incorporate Needs to be - -
of  in soil in soil powdered
appli-
cation

Meal Manure Group and its Nutrient Value

Blood Meat Fish Horn and Raw Bone Steamed Bone

Meal Meal Meal Hoof Meal Meal Meal

N 10 10 4-10 13 3 2

P 1 2.5 4 0 20 25

K 1 0.5 1 0 0 0
 25

Soil Water 

What is Soil Water?

Soil water movement is a key process in a wide range of practical problems, including water availability to
crops, the movement of pollutants through the soil, groundwater hydrology, energy budgets of land surfaces
and erosion caused by surface runoff. Consequently, the behaviour of Soil Water is important when looking at
Balanced Plant Nutrition. We have understood in general about structure, texture and types of soils.
These properties play an important role in the water holding capacity of soils. The pore space around soil
particles is known as a micro pore(<
po re(< 0.06 in diameter) and space between the two particles is known as a
macro pore. Macro pores are filled with air and facilitate the water movement in soil whereas micro pores are
filled with water. Soil wetness or the amount of water in soils can be measured by defining certain terms.
  Maximum Retentive Capacity -  -  This soil-water 
  status is reached when all pores (macro and
  micro) are filled with water from irrigation or rainfall.
  Field Capacity -  -  When the water from the macro
  pores starts draining downwards due to infiltration
  leaving only the micro pores filled with water, the
  soil-water status is said to be at field capacity
capacity.. In
  this condition, the soil is capable of supplying the
  crop with the required amount of water. In this state
  sufficient aeration exists in the soil and it is perfect
  for tilling. Field capacity is the ideal soil-water  Max relative Field Wilting Point
  status. Capacity Capacity Capacity
  Permanent wilting/wilting oefficient - When
- When the crop water requirement far exceeds the crop water
uptake,the crop shows symptoms of wilting. This soil-water status is termed as permanent wilting.
The difference between field capacity and permanent wilting point represents the water
that is available for plant growth.
Movement of Water from Soil to Plant Roots
  The entry of nutrients into the plant occurs at or near the root tip of root hairs and fine secondary roots.
Plant roots get the water from the soil in two ways. Both types of water uptake are important for maintaining
good plant growth.
  Capillary movement of soil water to plant root. As plant roots absorb water, tension in the soil right around
the root increases. Water flows from low water tension to high
hig h water tension. This keeps capillary water
flowing from soil to plant root.
  Growth of plant root into the moist soil. Capillary forces only affect
affect the zone right around the root. Rapid
root growth into moist areas will supply most of the moisture that a growing plant needs. Roots are only
exposed to 1% of the total surface area of the soil.
Now, once absorbed, nutrients are transported across the cell membrane by two mechanisms :
1. Passive Transport :  :  Passive transport is the movement of a nutrient across a membrane down a
concentration gradient. This process usually does not require any energy (ATP independent). As
nutrients move towards the plant root, they continue across the cell wall through the cell membrane and
into the xylem. Nitrates, sulfates, boron and chelates are elements that possibly can be taken up through
passive transport. Transport proteins are transmembrane
transmembrane proteins that can facilitate this diffusion. Highly
+ ++
specific
specif ic to chemica
chemicall species
species are
are the K and Ca
Ca trans
transport
port protei
proteins.
ns.
2. Active Transport : 
: Active
  transport requires energy from the plant (A(ATP
TP dependent). This type of transport
occurs when a solute molecule is moved across a membrane against a concentration gradient.
Transmembrane
Transme mbrane proteins also facilitate this process but they require energy for their functioning.
 26

Water as an Essential Factor in Nutrient

Nutr ient Uptake

The plant body is made up of 80% water. Water is an absolute requirement for two main
reasons.

1. for Physiological Needs

2. for Carrier Functions

Out of the total water requirement

requireme nt of a plant, only 10 -15% of it is used for its physiological needs
while the remainder and the bulk amount is mainly
mai nly used for carrier functions. Carrier function of
water is the ability of water to dissolve nutrient elements and allow for their absorption by the
plant roots. In other words, water carries the nutrient molecules to the plant. Optimum levels of
water ensure that both the functions of water are performed to meet plant needs. Optimum
levels of water are necessary in optimal
opt imal nutrient uptake by the plants.
pla nts. Excess of water or lack of
water reduces efficient nutrient uptake.

Advantages of Foliar Feeding in Avoiding Water

Water Stress

Under conditions of water stress,

st ress, there is not enough water to carry out the carrier function
f unction and
hence it is prudent to use foliar sprays wherever possible. It has been documented that under
water stress conditions, foliar feeding has ameliorated ill effects of water stress on emergence
of grain and grain filling in cereal crops.

The Advantages of Foliar Feeding are :

  Plant growth continues even under water - stress.

  Plants remain healthy and productive.
  In cases of extreme drought or in regions of very low rainfall, foliar feeding
feedi ng is the only way for 
  productive agriculture.
  More often than not, financial losses are averted.

  It is a method of supplying nutrients more rapidly than root-applications.

root-appl ications. 
  On the onset of reproductive stage, due to sink competition for carbohydrates, root activity as
well as uptake of nutrients decrease. Foliar sprays supply these essential
essent ial nutrients.
 In wheat and other cereals, the protein content of grains is increased by foliar application
appli cation of 
  fertilizers.
 Spraying on fruit surface (e.g. Apples, Citrus) can ameliorate Calcium, Boron related
rel ated
  disorders.
  In problematic soils, the root development
developm ent and nutrient availability is poor. Foliar application
  will supply adequate nutrients to the crop under these circumstances.
 27

Journey of Nutrients from Soil into the Plant

BULK SOIL :

This is the outermost

compartment notional
are related compartme
compartment.
to soil nt.irrigation
properties, The factors
irrigati affecting
on methods, the journey
tillage of nutrients
and other in this
farm practices.
Many farmers do not recognize that the soil is the capital out of which the profits of crops are to
be reaped, and hence it is imperative to harness the bulk soil. High doses of fertilizers and
improper irrigation, which initially resulted high yields have now caused the soils to behave in
problematic ways. Sustainable maintenance of soil health through rationalized fertilizer and
organic manure application will help.
RHIZOSPHERE :
Rizosphere is the zone of soil immediately adjacent to plant roots. The kinds, numbers and
activities of microorganisms here differ from that of the bulk soil. Diffusion / Absorption of
nutrients by the root system and the interaction of these processes with other biological
processes determine the characteristic properties
propert ies of this compartment. Roots absorb water and
+ -
nutrient
nutr ients,
s, give
give energy
energy for thethe microb
microbiolo
iologica
gicall activity
activity,, release
release H , HCO3 , CO2 and absorb absorb
oxygen. These processes create and aid in the formation of radial and longitudinal gradients
that concentrate the nutrients from the bulk soil into int o the rhizosphere. Changes in the bulk soil will
affect the efficacy of the rhizosphere in effectively absorbing nutrients and water.
RHIZOPLANE :
Rhizoplane is the interface of the soil and the roots. It includes the plant root surfaces and the
adhering soil particles that remain
rem ain stuck to the roots even after the roots are shaken. The roots
try to absorb the nutrients by solubilizing the nutrients through
thro ugh the release of organic acids and
standard reductases. Extra - cellular apoplasmic pools are also known to aid mobilization of
nutrients. Negative pressure in the root lumen, ion influx for cation absorption and ionic pairing
+
with H ion for anion absorption
absorption all aid in the absorprion
absorprion of nutrients into into the xylem compartment.
compartment.
XYLEM TRANSPORT :
Xylem is the dead connecting component of the plant vasculature.
vasculat ure. It is responsible for the long
distance acropetal movement of water from the roots to the leaves through the transpiration
channel. This transport is heavily
heavi ly dependent on the transpiration
transpir ation stream, the time
ti me of the day, the
plant species and the concentration of nutrients in the rhizoplane. It is thus imperative to
maintain an optimum rhizoplane to obtain
obtai n a high nutrient status in the xylem. Under water stress
condition, the transfer tubes between xylem and phloem are ar e activated for direct absorpotion.
PHLOEM TRANSPORT :
The phloem is the living component of the vasculature in the plant. It is responsible for acropetal
acropet al
(leaves to fruit) and basipetal (phloem to roots) movement
movem ent of photosynthates and nutrients. The
phloem sap is always richer in nutrients
nutrient s as compared to the xylem sap, Cations are carried in a
complex form while anions are in the free form. Most photosynthates and nutrients (except Ca,
Mo and Ni) are phloem mobile. Mobility of nutrients
nutri ents and phloem transport are dependent on the
age of the plant, the soil nutrient status and the transpiration
transpirati on stream. Since, the ultimate delivery

system
optimal to a sinkand
growth is the phloem,
yields by theit plant.
is imperative to maintain a healthy phloem transport system for
 28

 
 29

Plant Nutrition Concepts

We have no control on the effect of environmental conditions and pest/insect interactions with
the crop and the genetic make - up of a species.
s pecies. The only factor that we can control
con trol is how we
take care of the crop system and what we do to maximize
maxim ize its inherent genetic potential.
potent ial. The way
to ensure this is to maximize crop immunity, which is attained from a well-balanced food suply.
Now is the time to talk about Balanced Plant Nutrition.

Stages of Plant Growth and Nutrients Most Required

STAGE OF GROWTH NUTRIENTS REQUIRED

(Bold characters represents element most required)

1. Vegetative Stage -
  Vertic
Vertical
al growth, formation of roots, stems and N P K SECONDARY MICRO
  leaves
2. Transition Stage - SECONDARY
   Development of stems
girth of plant, bud and roots, increase in
differentiation N P
3. Reproductive Stage - N K
  Formation of flowers, fruits and seeds,
P
development of lateral branches, girth reaches
a maximum
4. Pre-Maturity Stage -
Stage - N K SECONDARY MICRO
Slow growth, development of lateral branches,
  maturity begins

5. Maturity Stage - 
- 
Leaf fall starts, ripening of end products,
K SECONDARY

growth ceases

6. Resting Stage - MICRO

  Post harvest period in horticultural crops,
N P K
  temperate fruits

30% - Crude Fibre

12% - Protein
20% 48% - N-free extracts
Dry 4% - Lipids
matter  6% - Ash
80%
Water 
1% Trace =

Fe,Mo,
B, Mn,NiZn, Cu,
 30

Essential Nutrients and their Properties

Type of nutrients Elements Notes

Naturally Available C, H, O, Cl Structural Elements of a plant system. As the name

Elements suggests, elements supplied by nature.

Major  N, P, K Building Blocks of the plant system. These are supplied

Elements through chemical fertilizers like DAP, Urea, MOP,
19:19:19, 15:15:15, required in large quantities.
Secondary Ca, Mg, S Supplied through amendments like Gypsum, Dolomite and
Elements Magnesium Sulphate. Required in moderate quantities.
Micro Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu,  CATALYSTS - THE SPARK PLUGS FOR
CATALYSTS F OR PLANT
Elements B, Mo, Ni GROWTH. Required in minute quantities.

Macronutrients and their Soil-Plant Specific Properties

Nutrient Deficiency Function in plant Main function in Mobility Amount

Element symptoms plant Tissue In plant found In
Plant
Shoot dwarfed, thin Component of proteins, Structural elements Mobile 1-3%
N
stunted growth, enzymes and metabolic of the more active
lower leaves turn processes involved and vital tissue
yellow (chlorotic) in the synthesis and transfer components like
and fall off. of energy. Structural part proteins
  of chlorophyll, stimulates
  plants into rapid, vigorous
  growth, increasing seed
  and fruit yield and improving
  the quality of leaf and
  forage crops.

Poor development Constituent of nucleoproteins, Structural elements Mobile 0.05-1%

P of roots. Older phytin and lecithin. Required of the more active
leaves-purplish for germination of and vital tissue
colour develop on seeds and root formation components like
underside of leaves. Increases formation of new proteins
  cells. Plays role in cambial
  activity.

Dieback, Small Starch conversion to sugars Major function is Mobile 0.3-6%

K necrotic spots/ and soluble forms. acting as
speckles at leaf Not a part of biochemical regulators and
tips, crumpling and cycle, but a carrier. carriers
cupping of margins Important role in stress
and tips. tolerance and disease
  tolerance.
 31

Secondary Nutrients and their Properties

Amount
Nutrient Deficiency Function in plant Main function in Mobility found in
Element symptoms Plant Tissue in plant
Plant
Ca Chlorosis of bud- Important in the Major function is Immobile 1-4%
leaves followed by maintenance of cellular acting as
distortion of growing organization by regulators and
points. Terminal bud regulating permeability of carriers.
dies under severe cell membrane. Structural
deficiency.. In Cereals
deficiency component of
and Onions, leaves chromosomes. Acts as
show a hook like co-factor of numerous
appearance, leaves enzymes, especially
become spindly/ hydrolases.
thread like. In fruit
trees dieback of
growing tip is
observed.
Mg Pale yellow colour Constituent of Major function is Relatively 0.05-1%
starts developing in chlorophyll molecule acting as Mobile
between the veins (photosynthesis). regulators and
which later turns Component part of carriers.
chlorotic. Veins chromosomes,
remain green. In ribosomes (protein
Banana, symptoms synthesis). Helps in
starts appearing from Phosphate metabolism,
mid rib. plant respiration
activation of various
enzymes.

S New leaves turn Component of certain  Accessory   0.05 -1.5%

yellow. Roots and amino acids which are structural
stems become building blocks of element of the
abnormally long and proteins. Important more active and
develop woodiness. constituent of thiamine, vital tissue
biotin, Acteyl Co-A, components like
ferredoxin, glutathione. proteins.
Important in synthesis of
glucosides in mustard
oil. Promotes nodule
formation. Involved in
carbohydrate
metabolism.

Micronutrients and their Properties
Nutrient
Element Deficiency symptoms
Fe lnterveinal Chlorosis of
young leaves, in severe
cases complete chlorosis of
plant
Mn lnterveinal chlorosis of
young leaves. Primary
Primary,,
secondary and tertiary veins
remain dark green, thus leaf
has a netted appearance
Zn Dwarfing, shortening of
internodes, rosetting
appearance in growing
plants, leaves are thick and
brittle, random necrotic
spots on chlorotic leaves
Cu Chlorosis in younger leaves
develop from edges, leaf
tips wither and drop, leaves
break off and drop easily
easily,,
dieback seen in tree crops
B Cessation of growth of
terminal bud, whip-like
appearance of leaves, poor
pollination and fertilization
and seed set
Mo Older leaf-light green with
interveinal necrotic spots,
exudates on lower leaf
surface, poor nodulation in
legumes, flower shedding.
Ni  
Co  - Essential for Nitrogen Fixation
32
Mobility Mobility
Function in plant in plant in soil
Important in chlorophyll formation, Very  Immobile
Component of ferredoxin which plays immobile
role in ox/red reaction Nitrate reduction,
Sulphate reduction and N fixation,
component of Peroxidases, Catalase
which are defense enzymes of the plant
Important in photosynthesis, Nitrogen Relatively Relatively
metabolism and Nitrogen assimilation. immobile immobile
 Activates Decarboxylase,
Dehydrogenase and Oxidase enzymes
Component of Dehydrogenases, Sightly Immobile
Proteinase and Peptidase enzymes, mobile
promotes growth hormones and starch
formation, promotes seed maturation
and production
Component of Laccase and other Relatively Relatively
Oxidase enzymes. important in immobile immobile,
photosynthesis, protein and depends
carbohydrate metabolism, probably on OM
important in Nitrogen fixation, integrity of content
cell wall
Integrity of cell walls and membranes, Very Mobile,
transport, translocation and immobile, depends
transformation of sugars into proteins, depends on OM
cellulose and lignins, responsible for on type content
efficient germination of pollen grain and of sugar
fertilization efficiency present
Component of Nitrogenase and Nitrate Relatively Mobile
Reductase enzymes, thus essential for mobile
Nitrogen fixation and assimilation
Essential for Urease, Hydrogenase and  
Methyl Reductase activity, required for
grain filling, seed-set, Iron absorption,
Urea and Ureide metabolism which
prevents accumulation of toxic levels of
Nitrogen fixation products in legumes
- -
 33

Activity Specific Properties of Micronutrients

Nutrient Influence of  Factors affecting Factors affecting Efficient/ Inefficient/

Element soil pH level utilization Tolerant Sensitive
crops crops
Fe Unavailable at High pH, calcareous Poor aeration, high Wheat, Alfalfa, Sorghum,
alkaline pH soils. soils, low organic Phosphate fertilizers Sunflower, Tree Crops,
matter,, water logged
matter in soils, high levels of Cotton Blueberries,
and alkaline soils Zn, Mn, Cu Roses,
(antagonism) Grapes, Nut
Trees
Mn Unavailable at High pH, low organic High levels of Iron, Cotton, Peas, Oats,
alkaline pH Soils matter,, calcareous
matter Copper, Zinc, and dry Soybean,  Apples,
soils, drained spells Paddy, Wheat Sugarbeet,
wetlands, poorly
drained soils, sandy Beet
Citrus- root,
soils
Zn Unavailable at High pH, high Increased Phosphate Carrots, Peas, Corn, Onion,
alkaline pH Soils erosion, high organic and Mg levels, High Oats, Soybeans,
matter  Phosphate : Zinc ratio Crucifers, Beans, Paddy
Grasses Peach,
Grapes
Cu Unavailable at High pH, high Phosphate depresses Beans, Potato, Wheat, Corn
alkaline pH Soils organic matter  Cu uptake, Heavy N Peas, Pasture Onion, Citrus
application depresses Grasses, Lettuce,
Cu Pines Carrot
B Unavailable at High pH, high Ca:B ratio Barley, Corn  Alfalfa,
alkaline pH Soils organic matter, dry Onion, Potato, Cauliflower,
spells, soils high in Soybean, Celery,
2:1 clays, recently Blueberry, Grapes,
limed soils, sandy Turfgrass  Apples,
soils Peanut,
Beets,
Rapeseed
Mo  Availability Leaching, acidic Nitrogen levels Most Grasses Alfalfa,
increases as pH sandy soils, highly crucifers
increases weathered soils with (Broccoli,
amorphous Fe and AI Cabbage),
Citrus, Most
Legumes
 34

Diagrammatic Chart of the Role of Nutrients in a Plant Cell

P N Mg Fe Mn
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS Fe
PEROXIDASE
mRNA
K Mo Cu CATALASE

ENZYMES
Mg
Zn N
P NUCLEUS P
Fe
RIBOSOMES P
         T
         S 
         A
         L
Cu NUCLEOLUS Ca
Mg
HISTONES
         P
         O 
         R
Ca
         O 
         L
         H Ca           A
B
         C 
          N
          D
N DNA LINKER
Mg
B
Fe
Mn Zn
D N 
N A
P  L  A  
C H 
HL 
L  O 
   R 
O RO 
  P 
O P  L 
L  A  S T 
T 
P    L
Cu S  A  T   
K    L
O  C  Y   
A  N   
I    S   T  P
  P    A
   N
   A
N     A  T   D
P LAS AT O 
OQ 
Q   U 
UI I N 
N  O 
O   N 
NE 
E   
CYTOPLASM    W
  F e
T
   L
  C  u  n
A R
 Y   L A S   E
  Y  L
 E
  M E  T S    L
U   B O  X  Y
  R  B    E
Mg  
  E
 E C   R
 A
 O  N
P   D
   C
  M o   R  I O
X
I
T Zn
O
Fe  M n  O C  H
  H O
 O  N  D
N D  E  H  
  M  I  T
P Y  D  R  
O  G  E  
H
P N  A S  
SE  
  
A
N     N
Mg Mn
    I
    X     E
A T  
TP  
       E
   O
    D     M
   O
    R
Mn   I  D A S  E
  E
    R
    R     H
   C  O  X  I
    E    O
PC o      F     T  e
    Y
   C  P u n
 y, P
 p  y r 
ri i  g  M  I
I  
T
T   
O C 
O 
NADH
  U   L   E
 O  E  n o
 e c h
 
 o
 l o g 
C H    V A C
gh 
  t 
t I n 
ns 
s  t 
t   i i t  HO    N 
O N D  D R   n   T
 t  
t u 
ut 
t   e 
e F o 
or    M  RI I O 
   N 
O N   t r r i  e
 o n u
 r o
 ie
 MM  
 c
 i c
 F o r 
i c 
c r 
ro 
  n 
o   u 
u t r 
ri i  e 
en 
n   t   
 t  
 u
t u  e F
 t e
t T e   
 i
 n s t i
ec 
c   h    I  n
hn 
n  o 
  l l o 
og 
  y   r
 y   ig  h t
 g 
 i
 , P u 
un 
  e 
e   C o p
 35

Silicon - Stress Relief for the Plant

The importance of Silicon in plant nutrition is interesting by itself, but our interest lies in the
recent studies regarding Silicon as an element that aids in fighting biotic and abiotic stress in a
plant system. It is the most abundantly found element after Oxygen. Grasses like Sugarcane
and Paddy have long been known as accumulators of Silicon.
Biotic Stress and Silicon :
 A strong correlatio
correlation
n has been establish
established
ed between Silicon accumulat
accumulation
ion in leaves and
resistance to fungal attacks. At this point, Silicon's mode of action is not completely understood.
Nevertheless, preliminary
prelimi nary studies indicate that the function of Silicon could be twofold.
  Silicon interacts with the pectins
pecti ns present in the cell wall of leaves, is preferentially deposited
deposi ted
  at the site of infection and creates a physical barrier to the penetration of the microbe.
  Silicon also stimulates the production of anti-fungal compounds like phenolics that halt the

  infection process.

 Al
Si,threpeated
ou gh mrice
an ycropping
ri ce -g rcan
ow ireduce
ng s oiSilicon
ls i ni levels
t ia l ly toc on
thet ai n sithat
point gn iSi
f i ca nt qu a ntbecomes
fertilization it i es of 
beneficial for growth and disease resistance. Common Si fertilizers include Calcium Silicate
Slag
Sla g (CaAI
(CaAI2Si2O8), Calci
Calciumum Sili
Silicate
cate (CaS
(CaSiO
iO3) and
and Sodi
Sodium um Metas
Metasilica
ilicate
te (NaS
(NaSiO iO3).

Silicon and Amelioration of Certain Elemental Toxicities :

There has been a considerable amount of work on the effects of Silicon on mineral toxicity.
Silicon restricts the Sodium uptake especially in plants growing under saline conditions. It works
by limiting the amount that is taken up by the shoot system by partial blockage of the
transpiration flow. Si nutrition reduced leaf apoplastic Manganese content suggesting that Si
modified the cation exchange properties of cell walls and hence reduced the toxic effect of high
Manganese content in soil. There have also been few reports suggesting that Si can ameliorate
amel iorate
the toxicity of various heavy metals. It appears
appea rs that co-precipitation in the cell walls
w alls may be the
mechanism involved in ameliorating
ameliorat ing the toxicity.
The element that has attracted the most attention from the view point of elemental toxicity
reduction by Silicon is Aluminium. AI toxicity in plants is a major problem, both
bot h for agriculture on
naturally acidic soils and for forest areas affected by acidic rain. It is known that at neutral pH,
 Aluminium andand Silicon form
form hydroxyaluminosilic
hydroxyaluminosilicatesates (HAS). The formation
formation of HAS ties thethe AI
AI
molecules up and the AI is removed from the soil solution thus making huge amounts
unavailable to the plant. The formation of HAS at pH of 4.0 and below has been shown to be
negligible and formation gradually increases as pH increases to pH 5.0. It is important to note
that the mechanism of amelioration requires intact plant machinery and can not occur in cell
cultures. Once within
w ithin the plant, AI and Si form co-deposits.
co-deposit s. These Si / AI co-deposits are found in
the epidermis and transfusion tissue of a variety of plants. Such sequestration of toxic AI by
Si / AI code posits may be extremely beneficial to t o the plant system in avoiding the toxic effects of
 AI.
 36

Positive
Positive and Negative
Ne gative Nutrient Interactions

Just like humans require a balanced diet with appropriate amounts of carbohydrates, proteins,

vitamins, minerals, fats and water, plants too require conditions of balanced plant
p lant nutrition. Every
plant, has a pre-determined ratio of nutrients that is required by it depending on its life cycle,
environment and its genotypic characteristics. In order to exploit this pre-determined ratio, we have
to understand the inter-relations between the elements. There are basically two kinds of
interactions : SYNERGISM (positive effect between nutrients)
nu trients) and ANTAGONISM
ANTAGONISM (negative effect
between nutrients).

These processes depend on soil type and physical properties, pH, ambient temperature, proportion
of participating nutrients, among other factors. Nutrient balancing between micronutrients is as
important but more difficult than balancing between macronutrients.

Synergism

OPTI
OPTIMU
MUM
M QUA
QUANT
NTIT
ITY
Y OF POSI
POSITI
TIVE
VE EF
EFFE
FECT
CT ON OT
OTHE
HER
R NUT
NUTRI
RIEN
ENTS
TS

Nitrogen Optimum uptake of P, K, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Ca

Cu and B Improves uptake of N from soil
Mo Improves utilization of N
Ca, Zn, Cu, Mo Increase uptake of P, K
S Increases uptake of Mn, Zn
Mn Increases uptake of Cu

Antagonism

EXCESS QUANTITY OF NEGATIVE EFFECT ON OTHER NUTRIENTS

Nitrogen Reduces uptake of P, K, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Ca and Mg

Mg and Fe Reduces uptake of P from soil
P Reduces uptake of Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn
K Reduces uptake of Ca, Mg
Zn Reduces uptake of P, Fe, Mn, Cu, Mo
Ca Reduces uptake of Fe
Fe Reduces uptake of Zn
Mn Reduces uptake of Zn
 37

Concepts of Balanced Plant Nutrition

What is BPN?

The focus of BPN is the plant system. Balanced Plant Nutrition is a well-rounded, integrated
approach to meet the nutritional needs of the crop and of humankind. It encompasses the
concepts of nutrient management based on crop type, soil
soi l type and stage of plant growth. Use
of BPN ensures proper ratios of essential nutrients and hence enables the plant to complete its
life cycle in the precise period. The concept of BPN does not stop at administering NPK but
also incorporates secondary nutrients and micronutrients. 
micronutrients.  This concept is not
revolutionary but a very poorly understood and practiced one.

Plants are very fastidious where uptake of nutrients is concerned and they preferentially
exclude or absorb nutrients based on the concentration of nutrients provided to them.
Therefore, any odd combination of nutrients is not going to do the trick of provide all 17 nutrients
in the appropriate ratios required by the plant. Hence, the stress on the word BALANCED!
BALANCED !
Why Employ BPN ?

Cultivation of high yielding cultivars

cult ivars of any one crop over long periods of time (monoculture) or
by adopting intensive cropping with improper fertilizer application, leads to depletion of soil
nutrient status (fertility). Promotion of these strategies is important in long term continuous
cropping system.

Advantages of Balanced Plant Nutrition

  Ensures optimum quantitative and qualitative yields.

  Avoids wastefulness of nutrients.
  Avoids nutrient antagonisms in soil and plant system and hence avoids plant deficiencies

  and toxicities.
  Maintains clean and productive soils.

  Better utilization of N, P, K.

  Renders the plant competent by increasing its immunity against stress and pest attack.

  Avoids hidden hunger in the plant.

  Maximizes cost : benefit ratio.

  Reduces environmental hazards.

 38

Sustainable Agrosystem Through Balanced Plant Nutrition

Ensures Well Being of the Environment

  BPN ensures that nutrients are supplied to the plant in the right amount
and at the correct stage of plant growth. Hence they are efficiently utilized.
This prevents excessive nutrients in the environment.
  Since excessive amounts are never used, the risk of Nitrate-Nitrogen
leaching from the soil, thereby polluting ground water is minimized.
   Under BPN regimen plant tend to have higher immunity,
immunity, consequentially
lesser amounts of pesticides are used.

Maintains Vitality and Vigor of Crop
 If all seventeen nutrients are provided to the crop
in the correct amounts and at the correct time, the
plant will maintain its vitality and vigor and yields
are significantly increased.
 A well-nourished crop has nutrients to activate
defense mechanisms and produce secondary
metabolites to combat disease. Hence disease-
resistance/immunity is increased.
Maintains Economic Viability of the Farmer 
 Excessive amounts of fertilizers and pesticides
are never put in the soils and hence input cost is
reduced.
  By supplying all nutrients in a balanced form,
quality and quantity of yields is increased.
 By maximizing returns from inputs and avoiding
unnecessary expenditures on wasted nutrients,
profit margins are improved.

Sustainable
Agriculture
through BPN

Maintains Productivity and Fertility of the Soils
   BPN acknowledges the importance of organic
matter in a crop nutrition program. A healthy soil is
the starting point for a healthy crop.
  Fields high in organic matter have less soil
erosion, retain water better and support good
microbial population which are essential for the slow
release of bound nutrients in the soil profile.
 When excessive use of nutrients and pesticides is
eliminated, soils stay cleaner and more productive.
 Providing the plant with the appropriate nutrients
at the correct time in its life cycle prevents excessive
leaching losses into the soil.
Prevents Malnutrition In Animals and Humans
Plant based foods, in theory
theory,, provide almost all the
micronutrients essential for human growth and
development. However,
However, due to intensive cultivation
and mismanaged nutrient applications, most plant
foods do not contain the full complement of the
micronutrients in sufficiently concentrated amounts.
If crops themselves do not receive comprehensive
nutrition, how is it possible for the plant part that we
consume to have all the nutrients that we need?
Following a BPN regimen will ensure that crops
and humans are properly nourished.
 39

Disease or Nutrient Deficiency

 All organisms that have evolved

evolved and survived on this planet have inbuilt
inbuilt natural defenses
defenses to

combat attackthis
to overcome by other organisms.
handicap Plants
they have are nosophisticated
evolved different. Plants are immobile
mechanisms to organisms
counteract and
the
onslaught of diseases and pests. In this day of chemical warfare waged in our fields we fail to
acknowledge the inherent capacity of plants
plant s to fight their own battles.

How do Plants React to Attack?

Plants are not passive in the face of attack. They produce chemical metabolites termed as
secondary metabolites in response to pest attack. These are different from primary metabolites
(such as glucose). Secondary metabolites are waste products of metabolism,
metabolism , are toxic and are
produced only when a defense response is elicited. They are derived from the isoprenoid,
phenylpropanoid, alkaloid
alkaloi d or fatty acid / polyketide pathways and include products like tannins,
Nitrogen-based compounds (nicotine, morphine and cyanide), terpenoids, alkaloids and
phenolics (salicylic acid, lignin).
The interest of the pesticide industry in the manufacture of  plant-pro
 plant-produced
duced seconda
secondary ry
metabolites as pesticides has increased in the last few years. This is due to diminishing
returns with traditional pesticides, increased environmental and toxicological concerns
with synthetic pesticides and the high level of reliance of modern agriculture on
pesticides. However,
pesticides.  However, the molecular complexity of identifying biologically active compounds,
the stability of compounds as well as their efficacy has made the development of natural
pesticides difficult. In addition, those pesticides, which have been developed on the lines of
natural plant compounds, often work differently in vivo and in vitro and hence may not effectively
protect the plant.

Nutrient Deficiency or Disease

More often than not, nutritional problems are mistaken for diseases and are treated as
diseases.

There are two main reasons for this misinterpretat

misinterpretation
ion
1. Misinterpreting a nutritional disorder to be a disease due to similariti
similarities
es in symptoms.
2. Misdiagnosing the cause of the disease.

Sometimes the cause of the disease is not the pest but is the nutritional disorder that made the
environment conducive for the pest to attack. Disease is a secondary response to poor
nutrition.   Farmers need to be aware of the cause of the problem so that they can save
nutrition.
themselves from the futile and expensive endeavor of spraying
sprayi ng unnecessary chemicals.
 40

How do Nutrients Contribute to Disease Tolerance

When there is a shortage of a particular nutrient, the plant's inherent disease fighting capability

decreases.
Manganese,Why? Forand
Calcium secondary
Iron are metabolites production,
needed in optimal nutrients
amounts and iflike
not Boron,
present,Copper, Zinc,
the plant will
not be able to produce its natural defense metabolites.
 Although toleranc
tolerance
e and resistan
resistance
ce are traits governed by the genetic code of the plant,
environmental factors weigh
wei gh in heavily on the expression of these traits. It is a well- documented
fact that the occurence of disease is related to poor nutritional status
stat us in the crop.

Optimal Nutritional
Status of Crop

 All nutrients available

for primary and
secondary metabolic
functions

Optimal Health

Optimal Immunity -
all nutrients present to
activate defense
mechanisms if needed

If attacked high plant
resistance to disease

Damage is less
or none at all !
 41

Misdiagnosis!

The table below will list some nutritional deficiencies, which are sometimes
misdiagnosed as diseases.

Sr..
Sr Crops  Diisease
 D Deficiency
1 Citrus, Tomato, Eggplant Yellow Specks Mg

2 Citrus, Tomato, Eggplant Leaf Spots Mn, Zn

Chilly, Cotton, Grapes

3 Cabbage, Cauliflower
Cauliflower,, Heart Rot, Root Rot, Ca, B
Ginger, Turmeric, Citrus Hard Fruits, Stem Rot,
Hollow Stem, Browning

4 Potato Ring Disease Ca, B

5 Chilly, Eggplant, Tomato, Distorted Leaf, Little Leaf, Zn, B, Mo

Cotton, Lady's Finger(Okra)
6 Citrus, Fruit Trees
Crinkled, Curled and Brittle
Leaf, Mottling of Leaf 
Gummosis, Cracking of the B, Cu, Mo
Bark, Roots and Fruits,
Pimpling of Fruits

7 Cotton Premature Boll Shedding Ca, B, Zn, Cu

8 Grapes, Apples, Peach Premature Fruit Shedding  Zn, Cu, Mn

Fruit Trees

 Although, chemical crop protectio

 Although, protectionn measures have proved effectiv
effective
e for years and are definitel
definitely
y
necessary in some situations, it will save the farmers' time,
ti me, energy and money if they diagnose
crop disease/nutrient deficiency
defici ency correctly and use corrective measures accordingly
according ly..

We believe that the solution to a plant problem isi s not necessarily a new chemical or excessive
exce ssive
use of one, but is as simple as good crop nutrition.
 42

Nutrient Deficiency Chart

Seventeen nutrients are essential for crop growth. 

growth.   A
 A   chart developed by the Institute
depicts the characteristic nature of nutrient deficiency
defi ciency symptoms on leaves. Charts are used as
guidelines to understand your crop and soil better. These charts are tools that help the farmer
make educated decisions on the reclamation measures
measur es to use on his crop and his fields.

 All the nutrient deficiencies

deficiencies have been picturized on a single branch in order to differentiate
between them with ease. The chart is divided into three parts based on the leaf position and
related nutrient deficiencies.

Once the deficiencies appear on a crop plant, assume

assum e that the crop yield has suffered by 50%.
Therefore, one must try to read the earlier symptoms or behavioral patterns of the plant that
exhibits deficiencies.

Deficiencies
the methodsare observed on allthese
of understanding kinds deficiencies
of crops - horticultural,
is to observevegetables, cereals, etc. One
their manifestations of
on the
leaves of the plant. This visual method of recognizing nutrient deficiency symptoms is a quick
and easy way of determining the nutrient status of the plant and is the first step in remedying any
malady in the plant system.

 Yardsticks
 Yardsticks Showing Symptoms Indicating Micronutrient Deficiencies
   Seed germination is poor and mortality rate is high
  Poorly developed crop stands and abnormal mortality
  Severe stunting of the crop
  Top leaves yellowing I top chlorosis
  At prescribed NPK application, the yield is poor and it becomes necessary to re-apply more N
  Yields do not improve with high doses of NPK, or if yield improves quality is poor 

How to Read the Deficiency Chart

Position of leaf   Element that is deficient
Old Leaves  N, P, K, Mg, Mo, Zn
New Leaves Fe, Mn, Cu, S
Bud Leaves Ca, B
 43

Reading Deficiencies Based on Leaf Location

Lower Leaves
   
Chlorosis No Chlorosis
P
 
With Necrosis No Necrosis
K, Mo, Zn Mg, N

       
From Tip and Edges  Generalized
K
lnter - veinal Generalized
Mg N

   
lnterveinal Random
Mo Zn

Upper Leaves
 
Chlorosis with  Chlorosis with veins
dominant veins  NOT dominant
Fe, Mn Cu, S

veins
Primary Primary,
Primary, Secondary &
  
Smaller erect and

Leaf normal sized,
dominant Tertiary veins dominant light green leaf  drooping, rosetting
Fe Mn S Cu

Bud Leaves
   
Tip dying, whip like Tip is chlorotic,
appearance, Chlorosis hook like appearance,
begins from base chlorosis at tip and base
B Ca
 44

Plant Nutrient Deficiencies Visual Symptoms on Leaves

BORON CALCIUM
Terminal leaves loose Plant remains dark green,
colour. Loss of colour young bud leaves turn
starts at the base with chlorotic. Tip is chlorotic,
eventual death of the hook like in appearance.
terminal bud. Eventual death of terminal
bud.
SULPHUR
Leaf is light green, veins IRON
are pale. No necrotic Chlorisis with no spots.
spots. Main veins are typically
green.

MANGANESE
Leaf turns chlorotic. All the COPPER
venation remains green,
I nt er veinal chlor osis.
giving the leaf a classic
checkered appearance. Rosetting and permanent
wilting of leaves. Leaf
detaches easily from stem.

ZINC
Leaf is narrow and small. MOLYBDENUM
Lamina is often chlorotic, Leaf turns a light green.
veins remain green. Dead necrotic spots appear
Necrotic spots develop over the leaf except on the
randomly all over the leaf. veins. Affected areas may
extrude a resinous
substance from the under
surface of leaf.

MAGNESIUM POTASSIUM
Chlorosis starts from the Leaves are chlorotic.
tip and margins and Necrotic spots appear of
extends through the entire tips and margins giving the
leaf. The veins remain leaf "rusty" look. Margins
green. Cupping noticed and tips may exhibit
under tips and margins. crimping and dupping.
The leaf will detach easily
from the stem.

PHOSPHORUS NITROGEN
Dwarf and abnormally Dwarf and abnormally light
dark green plant. Leaf is green plant. Leaf is erect
er ect and unusually and light green to yellow.
narrow. Bronzing occurs Firing observed in acute
on the lower surface of conditions.
leaf.

COMPUTED & DESIGNED BY

SHRI S.N. RANADE
 45

Temperature and Nutrient Uptake

Temperature Chart
C hart
Every plant has its own temperature range in Temperature
Range Effects
which it can grow and reproduce effectively.
The temperature of the environment as well Below  Plasma membrane breakage due
as the microenvironment is important to freezing   to freezing and thawing
O
consider. By microenvironment, we refer to (<0 C)   mechanisms.
 Dehydration of plant.
the internal temperature in the plant system.
 Concentration of toxic solutes
An optimal microclimate temperature
  increase to a point where plant can
range for most crops is 16°-24°C.
  die.
However, this temperature is impossible to
attain continuously under field conditions O
0 - 12 C
O Very low vegetative and
a nd reproductive
and under tropical climatic conditions. growth because of,
  Limitations on nutrient uptake
Temperature affects the following
  Reduced water uptake, thus
physiological processes; indirect
 Root development   water stress.
  Photoinhibition of Photosynthesis
  Uptake of water by roots   Respiratory machinery becomes
  Cell division O
Reproductive and Vegetative growth
12 C -
  Development and turgor of cells and cell O
25 C is marginal to moderate depending
  integrity on species and TKW
  The state in which plant water is
i s present in 25 C -
O
Most nutrients are available and most
  the cell-gas (vapour), liquid, solid (ice) O
35 C plants
plants have their
their TKW in this
this range.
range. C4
 Chemical interactions in cell plants like Maize, Sugarcane can
tolerate much higher temperatures
Thermal Kinetic Window (TKW) due to differences in plant genetics
TKW : the range of temperatures for fo r a plant and metabolic pathways.
in which the affinity of an enzyme for its O
35 C - Very low vegetative and reproductive
substrate is not less than 50% of its O
50 C growth because of :
maximum affinity. The TKW is species species  
dependent   and is based on enzyme
dependent  Protein and enzyme instability
 Increased membrane permeability
kinetics and temperature at which the
  thus looses the selectively
etiolated leaves start to green. All leaves will
  permeable characteristic.
try to maintain their internal temperatures   Influences partition of
within the TKW as far as possible. In carbohydrates into developing seeds,
addition, every growth stage requires thus limited
different temperatures. 
temperatures.  In the northern   reproductive development.
and southern hemispheres, plants can  Chlorosis of leaves, since
easily go through their life cycle at sub-zero   chlorophyll enzyme degraded.
temperatures, while tropical plants can grow   PHOTOSYNTHESIS SHUTS
only under 25°-35°C temperatures.   DOWN!
 46

Effect of Temperature on the

Uptake of Individual Nutrient by Plants

o
50
0 0 C and
and below
below : 
Cell contents are in frozen state
45
0 thereby causing death of the plant.
o o
0 C to 10 C :
40
0
Slow cell functioning and low nutrient
uptake is seen, resulting in slow
C 0
vegetative and meagre reproductive
o 35
ni
growth.
o o
e 10 C to 16 C : 
g 30
0

n Nutrient uptake is fairly normal showing

a
R reasonably good vegetative &
er 25
0
reproductive growth.
ut
0
24
o o
ar 16 C to
to 24
24 C :
e 20
0 N P K Ca Mg S Fe Mn B Cu Zn Mo There is an increasing uptake of all the
p
m nutrients thereby showing optimum
e
T
0
16 vegetative & reproductive growth.
0
15
o o
24 C to 33
33 C : 
10
0 Maximum uptake of nutrients, growth
most vigorous.
o o
0
33 C to 43
43 C :
7.5

0
Reduction in nutrient uptake, slowing
5
0
down of vegetative & reproductive
0
growth.
o o
Green - Increasing Uptake 43 C to 50 C :
Very low or negligible uptake of
Orange - Steady Uptake
nutrients, denaturing of protein,
Red - Low I Decreasing Uptake resulting in the death of the plant.
Violet - Very Low I Negligible Uptake
O O O O O O O O O O O
32 41 50 59
59 68 77 86
86 95 104 113 122
O
F

1975
COMPUTED & DESIGNED BY
  s
   t Shri S. N. Ranade
  n
  a
   l
   P COPYRIGHT WITH
  y IMT TECHNILOGIES LTD.
   b
  s
   t
  n
  e
   i PUBLISHED & ISSUED BY :
  r
   t
  u
   N
  e
   h
   t
   f
  o IMT TECHNOLOGIES LTD.
  e 1-A, Kondhwa Khurd, Pune 411 048, INDIA.
   k
  a
   t
  p
   U

O
C0 5 7.5 10 15 16 20 24 25 28 30 33 35 40 43 45 50
o
Temperat
emperature
ure Range in C
 47

Why do We Need to Supply Nutrients to Soil?

Removal of Nutrients by
Weeds
Similar to any other crop, weeds
also take up their share of
nutrients from the soil. Because
they are so fast growing and
have such high reproductive
rates they tend to compete
heavily with the crop of concern.

Leaching Loss Volatilization and Gaseous

Loss of  Loss
Nutrients especially anions Nutrients from
- 2- -
like NO
NO3 , SO
SO4 , CI and ev
even K
+
This is primarily related to
Soil Occurs Through Nitrogen lost to the
which are not adsorbed either the Following
by plants or by the organic environment in the form of
Processes  Ammonia. This occurs when
matter often leach out with
water flow. Loss is higher in soil pH is above 8.
sandy soils than clay soils.

Removal of Nutrients by Crops

For the growth and development,
plant will remove certain quantity of
nutrients from the soil. The amount
of nutrients taken up by the crop
needs to be replenished in order to
maintain the soil fertility
fertility..
 48

How to Supply Plant Nutrients to the Soil?

Addition of Commercial
Fertilizers
This is the most efficient
way of providing nutrients to
soil. Depending on their
composition, they are
classified as simple or
compound.

Addition of Green Manures Addition of Organic Manures

It consists
usually of growing
legumes and crops,
then  Animal
applied toand plant
supply refuse
nutrients are
to soil.
ploughing them under to However, organic manures will
incorporate them in the soil only improve soil condition and
before flowering. not do much in meeting the
Methods of  immediate needs of the crop at
Supplying hand.
Nutrients to
Soil

Addition of Soil Addition of Crop

Amendments  
Amendments Residues
 Another very efficient way to Plant residues left behind
ameliorate soils. These are after harvesting are often
basically compounds that affect incorporated into the soil
the pH of the soil and include and provide nutrients after
Limestone,
Limes tone, Gypsum,
Gypsum, CaCI
CaCI2, decomposition sets in.
Sulphur, etc.
 49

Commercial Fertilizers

Macronutrient Fertilizers
Commercial Fertilizers
Fertil izers are classified according to the presence of N, P and K.
  Simple Fertilizers : Contains one
  Compound Fertilizers : Contains two or more
  Complete Fertilizers : Contains all three

Commercial Nitrogen Fertilizers

  Nitrogen is the first element in a complete fertilizer.
fertilizer.
  Soluble Nitrogen sources include : Ammonium Nitrate (34%N), MAP (13%N), Urea (46% N),
  DAP (18% N), Ammonium Sulfate (21% N). Leads to a decrease in soil pH.
  Nitrogen Fertilizers can be divided into 4 subgroups depending on the form of Nitrogen that is
provided by the fertilizer.
fertil izer.
FORM SUPPLIED CHEMICAL STRUCTURE % OF N CHARACTERISTICS OF
BY FERTILIZERS OF FERTILIZERS PROVIDED FERTILIZERS

NITRATE Ca(NO3) 2 - Calciu

Ca(NO Calcium
m Nitr
Nitrate
ate 15 Used as side / top dressing.
FORM NaNO3 - Sodium Nitrat
Nitrate
e 16 Used to decrease soil acidity
acidity..
KNO3 - Potassium
Potassium Nitrate
Nitrate 13 Basic/Alkaline in residual effect.

AMMONIUM (NH4)2 SO4 - Am

Ammo
moni
nium
um 21 Soluble in water, plants prefer NO 3
-

FORM Sulphate form

form than
+
than NH4 (ex
(excep
ceptio
tions
ns are
are Paddy
Paddy,,
(NH
(NH4)3PO4 - Am
Ammo
moni
nium
um 20 Sugarcane, Potatoes)
Phosphate
NH4Cl - Ammonium
Ammonium Chloride
Chloride 24-26
 Anhydrous Ammonium 82
MAP - Mono - Ammonium 13
Phosphate
DAP - Di - Ammonium 18  Acidic in residual effect.
Phosphate
 Ammonium Solution 20-25

COMBINATION NH4 NO3 - Amm

Ammoniu
onium
m Nitra
Nitrate
te 33 Both forms of N are present.
-
OF NITRATE Calcium Ammonium Nitrate Plants
Plants most easily take
take up the
the NO3 form
form..
25
AND AMMONIUM + -
 Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate
Nitrate NH4 fo
form
rm is
is conv
convererte
ted
d into
into NO
NO3 fo
form
rm and
and
26
is available at a later stage in plant cycle.
CAN = Neutral Ammonium Sulphate
Nitrate

AMIDE Urea
Urea - CO(NH
CO(NH2)2 46 Conversion of Urea into Nitrate and
FORM  Ammonia forms takes a week. Can be
used as foliar spray over crop canopy.
 Acidic in residual effect.
 50

Commercial Phosphate Fertilizers

Phosphorus is the second element provided in a complete fertilizer.

fertili zer.

The amount of Phosphorus in a fertilizer is expressed as the percent of P2O5.

To determine the actual amount of Phosphorus in a particular
parti cular fertilizer,
fertilize r, divide the percent of P2O5
by 2.3.

 
Amount of  Type of soils
Sources of Phosphorus P2O5 (%) to be used in
Single Super Phosphate (SSP) 16-20
Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) 46
Basic soils
Monoammonium Phosphate 52

Diammonium Phosphate 46
Mono Potassium Phosphate 50
Basic Slag 18
 Acidic Soils
Dicalcium Phosphate 34-39

Commercial Potassium Fertilizers

Potassium is the third major element provided

provi ded in a complete fertilizer.
In the fertilizer analysis
analysis,, the amount of Potassium
Potassium present
present is expressed
expressed in the form of K2O
(Potash). To determine the amount of actual Potassium available in a fertilizer, divide the
percentage K2O by 1.12.

Sources of Potassium Amount of  K2O (%)

Muriate of Potash 60

Sulphate of Potash 50

Potassium Nitrate 45
 51

Secondary and Micronutrient Fertilizers

Excess
growth and Calcium
result(Ca) may inhibit
in deficiency plant
of other Sources of Calcium % of Ca
Dolomite 22
elements such as Boron (B), Iron (Fe),
Manganese (Mn), Copper (Cu) or Zinc Calcite 30
(Zn). Surplus Calcium reduces availability Calcium Sulfate 22
of Potassium (K) and Magnesium (Mg).
Triple Super Phosphate 13
Periodically monitor the level of Calcium in
irrigation water through chemical analysis. Calcium Nitrate 19
Calcium should be incorporated into the Gypsum 21
soil prior to planting.
Calcium Carbonate 30
The Magnesium content of liming and

fertilizer materials may vary depending on Sources of Mg % of Mg

the source.
Magnesium Oxide 45
Magnesium Sulfate (Epsom Salts) 16
Dolomitic Limestone 11

Nutrient Source % Provided

Iron (Fe) Ferrous Sulfate 19
  Chelated Iron (Fe) 12
Manganese (Mn) Manganese Sulfate 30.5
  Manganese Oxide 48-65
Zinc (Zn) Zinc Sulfate 21
  Chelated Zinc 12
Copper (Cu) Copper Sulfate 24
Molybdenum (Mo) Ammonium Molybdate 52
  Sodium Molybdate 39
  Molybdenum Oxide 60
Boron (B) Borax 10.5
  Boric Acid 17
Solubor 20
 52

What are Chelates?

 A chelate (Greek Chelae, claws) is an organic compound in which two or more atoms are
capable of bonding to the same metal atom, thus forming a ring. The organic molecule is termed
as a LIGAND. These organic molecules
molecul es may be synthesized by the roots and exuded into int o soil,
may be present in SOM or may be synthetically
synthetical ly produced. In such a complex form; the
t he cations
are protected from reactions with inorganic soil components and thus are made available for
plant uptake.

The Main Criteria for Selecting a Chelate

   lt should be SOLUBLE and ST
STABLE.
ABLE.
   It should protect nutrient ions until delivered to the plant.
   It should be relatively cost effective .
3+ 2+
  Fo
Forr exam
example
ple,, for
for EDTA Log K for
for Fe = 25,
25, fo
forr Zn
Zn = 14.8
14.87
7
3+ 2+
  and for HEDT
HEDTA A Log K for Fe = 33.9
33.9,, for Zn = 16.8
16.8.. So bas
based
ed on
  stability constants, you would use HEDTA but the cost is 10 times
more expensive than
t han EDT A.

Some frequently used chelating agents

EDTA
EDTA - Ethylenediamine Tetraacetic Acid
HEDTA - Hydroxyethylene Diaminetriace
Diaminetriacetic
tic Acid
DTPA
DTPA - Diethylene Triamine Pentaacetic Acid
EDDHA - Ethylene Diamine di (O-Hydroxyphenyl Acetic Acid)
NT A - Nitrilotriacetic
Nitrilotria cetic Acid.

+
Synthetic chelating
chelating agents are essentially
essentially Organic Acids, which by losing an H atom from their
COOH moiety become negatively charged, thus being capable of binding to a positive charge
molecule. The stability constant of chelating
chelat ing agents is higher for Iron than for Zinc indicating that
Iron Chelates are more stable
stab le than Zinc Chelates. However,
How ever, this does not mean that chelates of
other cations are ineffective.
ineffecti ve. Apparently,
Apparently, replacement of cations by Iron
I ron from soil is sufficiently
sufficient ly
slow to permit absorption of the cation by plants. Chelates are used primarily to ameliorate
micronutrient deficiencies in long duration fruit crops. However, chelates are expensive. Other
economical options for using chelates involve using compounds like Gluconate and Citrate,
which are naturally exuded from roots.
 53

How to Gauge the Efficacy of Micronutrient Fertilizers

Relying on our experience of fifty odd years in this field, we feel that a balanced formulation

should be evaluated on the following two criteria.

criteri a.
Group I : Chemical Integrity of the Product
  It should supply all nutrients in the available form.
  The nutrients should not leach out even under reasonable heavy irrigation.
  The combination should not leave scope for negative interactions between elements.
  Suitable carriers of elements should be chosen.
  It should mineralize quickly without allowing for fixation of elements.
  It should be cost effective.
  It should have a cost benefit ratio of 1 : 7 - 1 : 9.

Group II : Agronomic Efficacy of Product

The only yardstick for agronomic efficacy is increase in yield.
Now we know that micronutrients form the prosthetic
prosthet ic group of most enzymes, which are needed
to perform major metabolic processes. If enzymatic
enzymati c functions fall short, metabolic processes do
not proceed at the normal pace. This often leads to a feedback inhibition of processes and an
accumulation of intermediate metabolic
metaboli c products, which are manifested as:
  Toxicity of an element
  Induced deficiencies
  Deficiencies
  Excessive vegetative growth with poor reproduction

  Wilting and death of the plant
A standard formulation not only ensures that the above symptoms do not occur 
but also ensures an increase in yield.
Factors Favoring the Use of Multi - Micronutrient Mixtures :
  Provides all the essential nutrients (especially micronutrients) and hence ensures balanced
  plant nutrition when supplied with NPK and secondary nutrients.
  Use of multi-micronut
multi-micronutrient
rient mixtures is currently confined to horticulturis
horticulturists,
ts, vegetable growers
  and cash crop growers who seek the highest quality and quantity. Currently used by
  educated farmers and hence there is no fear of misuse.
  Products have been designed and formulated by scientists and technologists.
  All products have been time tested in real field experiments.
 54

 
 55

 
 56

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  : (020) 26833748    FAX : (020) 26833750   HELPLINE : 18002334343
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