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Module 3
Liquid Fuels: The importance of liquid fuels is the fact
that almost all combustion engines run on them.
The largest source of liquid fuels is petroleum. The
calorific value of petroleum is about 40000 kJ/kg.
There are other supplements of liquid fuels such as coal
tar, crude benzol, synthetic liquid fuel made from coal etc.
Petroleum: The term petroleum means rock oil. It is also
called mineral oil.
Petroleum is a complex mixture of paraffinic, olefinic and
aromatic hydrocarbons with small quantities of organic
compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
HOW OIL WAS FORMED?
Oil was formed from the remains of
animals and plants that lived millions of
years ago in a marine (water)
environment.
Over the years, the remains were
covered by layers of earth.
Heat and pressure from these layers
helped the remains turn into what we
today call crude oil .
Where We Get Oil?
The world's top five crude oil-producing
countries are:
◦ Saudi Arabia
◦ Russia
◦ United States
◦ Iran
◦ China
Composition:
Pumping of oil
Oil Refining Production Process
Desalting and Dewatering
Distillation
Cracking
Reforming
Alkylation
Isomerisation
Polymerisation
Hydrotreating
Refining of Petroleum
Crude oil reaching the surface, generally consists of a mixture
of solid, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons containing sand and
water.
After the removal of dirt, water and much of the associated
natural gas, the crude oil is separated into a no. of useful
fractions by fractional distillation.
The resultant fractions are then subjected to purification known
as refining of petroleum.
Steps involved in refining of petroleum:
(i) Demulsification: The crude oil coming out from the well, is
in the form of stable emulsion of oil and salt water, which is
yellow to dark brown in colour.
The demulsification is achieved by Cottrell’s process, in which
the water is removed from the oil by electrical process. The
crude oil is subjected to an electrical field, when droplets of
colloidal water coalesce to form large drops which separate
out from the oil.
video
Fractional distillation of crude
petroleum
Video
The hot vapours from the crude are passed through a tall
fractionating column, called bubble tower.
Bubble tower consists of horizontal trays provided with a no
of small chimneys, through which vapours rise.
These chimneys are covered with loose caps, known as
bubble caps. These bubble caps help to provide an intimate
contact between the escaping vapours and down coming
liquid.
The temperature in the fractionating tower decreases
gradually on moving upwards.
As the vapours of the crude oil go up, they become gradually
cooler and fractional condensation takes place at different
heights of column.
Atmospheric distillation Unit
Vacuum distillation Unit
The residue from the bottom of the fractionating tower
is vacuum distilled to recover various fractions
Top Flashing
In top flashing, there is better control of product
composition, but requires more pumps and
instruments and hence is an expensive process.
Cracking
Cracking processes break down heavier
hydrocarbon molecules (high boiling point
oils) into lighter products such as petrol and
diesel.
These processes include:
1. catalytic cracking
2. thermal cracking
3. hydrocracking
Cracking:
• Gasoline is the most important fraction of crude oil.
• The yield of this fraction is only 20% of the crude oil.
• The yield of heavier petroleum fraction is quite high.
Therefore, heavier fractions are converted into more
useful fraction.
This is achieved by a technique called cracking.
Cracking is the process by which heavier fractions are
converted into lighter fractions by the application of heat, with
or without catalyst. Cracking involves the rupture of C-C and
C-H bonds in the chains of high molecular weight
hydrocarbons.
C H Cracking C H
C H
10 22 5 12 5 10
Decane n - pentane pentene
B.Pt 174ο C B.Pt 36ο C
C H Cracking
C H C H
8 18 5 12 3 6
CH 3 CH 2CH 2 CH 2 C H 2 CH 3 CH 2 CH 2
29
Hydrocracking is an operation in which
Hydrocracking
low-value gas oil with a high
percentage of polynuclear aromatics is
simultaneously cracked and
hydrogenated to produce low-boiling
and mid-boiling distillates which are of
high value.
Advantages of catalytic cracking over thermal
cracking:
• High temp and pressure are not required in the presence of a
catalyst.
• The use of catalyst not only accelerates the cracking
reactions but also introduces new reactions which
considerably modify the yield and the nature of the products.
• The yield of the gasoline is higher.
• No external fuel is required for cracking.
• The process can be better controlled so desired products can
be obtained.
• The product contains a very little amount of undesirable
sulphur because a major portion of it escapes out as H2S
gas, during cracking.
• It yields less coke, less gas and more liquid products.
• The evolution of by-product gas can be further minimized,
thereby increasing t he yield of desired product.
• Catalysts are selective in action and hence cracking of only
high boiling fractions takes place.
• Coke forming materials are absorbed by the catalysts as
soon as they are formed.
Hydrocracking video
Reforming
• It is a refinery process which is used to upgrade low
octane naphtha to high octane motor fuel.
• Dehydrogenation of naphthenes
• Isomerization of naphthenes and paraffins
• Dehydrocyclization of paraffins
• Hydrocracking of paraffins
Continuous Catalytic Regenaration Reforming
Storage and handling of liquid fuels
• It is important to use only the original containers or safe, UL-approved
containers to store fuels. It is dangerous to store fuels in unapproved
containers because they can become damaged easily and leak or spill.
• Containers that are UL-approved are red for gasoline, blue for kerosene,
and yellow for diesel
• Small leaks can add up over time. Always recycle or safely dispose of fuel
containers and unused fuel.
• To avoid fuel vapors, which are a health hazard and a fire danger, keep
fuel containers and fuel-powered devices in a secure, well-ventilated
place
Storage and handling of liquid fuels
• Store containers off the floor and keep them out of the reach of children.
Make sure lids are on tight to prevent easy access.
Tank Location
• With both underground and aboveground storage tanks, location is very
important.
• Recommends a minimum distance of 150 feet between your fuel tank and
nearby wells, but the greater the distance, the better.
• Fuel tanks are safer when located downslope (downhill) from drinking water
sources and surface water.
Leak protection
• With underground tanks, knowing the age of the tank is vital. Tanks more
than 15 years old have a dramatically higher chance of leaking.
• Corrosion protection helps keep steel tanks from leaking, but most older
tanks do not have this protection and are at high risk for leaks.
• Fiberglass tanks do not corrode but are vulnerable to other problems, such
as puncture by sharp objects.
• The pipes, hoses, valves, and fittings connected to a storage tank also can
be a major source of leaks, and age is again a factor.
Leak detection
Diesel Index
aniline po int o F x Degrees API gravity 60 o F
100