Life Processes

• Various functions carried out by living

beings; which are necessary to maintain
and continue life are called Life Processes.
• But before we go into the detail of Life
processes we should first understand what
Life or Live being is?
Difference between Living and
Non Living
LIFE PROCESSES
Respiration

Nutrition

Growth

Movement

Sensitivity

Excretion

Reproduction
2) Life processes :-
Life processes are the basic processes in living organisms which
are necessary for maintaining their life. The basic life processes are –
nutrition, respiration, transportation, and excretion.
i) Nutrition :– is the process of taking food by an organism and its
utilization by the body for life processes.
ii) Respiration :– is the process by which food is burnt in the cells of
the body with the help of oxygen to release energy.
iii) Transportation :– is the process by which food, oxygen, water,
waste products are carried from one part of the body to the other,
iv) Excretion :- is the process by which waste products are removed
from the body.
Nutrition
 Nutrition
• Nutrition is the process of taking food by an organism
and its utilisation by the body to build the body, for
growth, to repair the damaged parts of the body and
for energy.
• The term ‘nutrition’ comes from the word ‘nutrient’.
• A nutrient is an organic or inorganic substance
required for the maintenance of life and survival of a
living organism.
• The food taken in by an organism contains a large
number of nutrients like carbohydrates, fats, proteins.
Modes of nutrition
There are two main modes of nutrition. They are autotrophic nutrition
and heterotrophic nutrition.

i) Autotrophic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms prepare their

own food from simple inorganic substances like carbon dioxide and
water in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
Eg :- all green plants and some bacteria.

ii) Heterotrophic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms get their

food directly or indirectly from plants.
Eg :- all animals fungi and some bacteria.

.
Autotrophic
nutrition
 Autotrophic Nutrition
• The word ‘auto’ means ‘self’ and ‘trophe’ means
‘nutrition’.
• Autotrophic nutrition is that mode of nutrition in
which an organism makes its own food from the
simple organic materials like carbon dioxide and
water present in the surroundings (with the help of
sunlight energy)
• Those organisms which can make their own food
from carbon dioxide and water are called autotrophs.
 Nutrition in Plants
• Green plant are autotrophs and synthesis their own
food by the process of photosynthesis.
• ‘Photo’ means light and ‘synthesis’ means build, thus
photosynthesis means ‘build up by light’.
• The process by which green plants make their own
food from carbon dioxide and water by using sunlight
energy in the presence of chlorophyll is called
photosynthesis.
• Raw material required are carbon dioxide and water.
• Oxygen gas is released during photosynthesis.
Nutrition in plants :-
Equation of photosynthesis :-
Sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Chlorophyll

The process of photosynthesis takes place in the green leaves of a

plant.
The food prepared by the green leaves of a plant is in the form of a
simple sugar called glucose.
The extra glucose is changed into another food called starch.
The green plants convert sunlight energy into chemical energy by
making carbohydrates (food).
Site of photosynthesis is Chloroplasts.
 Conditions Required
• The conditions necessary for
photosynthesis to take place are:
1. Chlorophyll
2. Carbon Dioxide
3. Water
4. Sunlight
1.Chlorophyll are the green pigments present in the leaves. If
we observe a cross section of a leaf under a microscope, we
can see cells containing green dot like structures called
chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll
 Activity to show that chlorophyll is necessary for
photosynthesis :-

Take a potted plant having variegated leaves (croton plant). Keep it

in a dark room for three days so that all the starch is used up.
Then keep it in sunlight for 6 hours.
 Then take a leaf from the plant and mark the green areas of the leaf
on a sheet of paper.
Then dip the leaf in boiling water to make it soft.
Then dip the leaf in alcohol and heat it in a water bath to decolourise
it and remove the chlorophyll.
Then wash the leaf in water and dip it in dilute iodine solution.
It will be seen that only the green parts of the leaf turns blue black.
This shows that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.
Carbon dioxide – It is a gas utilized by the
autotrophic plants which enter the leaf through the Stomata
present on its surface during the process of photosynthesis.
Stomata :- are tiny pores present in the leaves through which
exchange of gases takes place. Each stoma has a pair of guard
cells which controls the opening and closing of the stomatal
pore. When water enters the guard cells, it swells and the pore
opens and when the guard cells lose water, it shrinks and the
pore closes
 Activity to show that carbon dioxide is necessary for
photosynthesis

 Take two healthy potted plants which are nearly the same size.
 Keep them in a dark room for three days.
 Now place each plant on separate glass plates. Place a watch-glass
containing potassium hydroxide by the side of one of the plants. The
potassium hydroxide is used to absorb carbon dioxide.
 Cover both plants with separate bell-jars. Use vaseline to seal the
bottom of the jars to the glass plates so that the set-up is air-tight.
 Keep the plants in sunlight for about two hours.
 Pluck a leaf from each plant and check for the presence of starch as
in the above activity.
The plant with did not have KOH could utilize CO2 and produce
starch by photosynthesis and turn blue black with iodine solution.
 Steps of Photosynthesis
• The photosynthesis takes place in the following four
steps :
1. Absorption of sunlight energy by chlorophyll.
2. Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and
splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and
oxygen by light energy.
3. Reduction of carbon dioxide to form carbohydrates
like glucose by utilising the chemical energy.
 Types of Heterotrophic nutrition
i) Saprohytic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms get their food from
dead and decaying organisms. They break down the food material outside their
body and then absorbs it. Eg :- mushroom, bread mould, yeast, some bacteria
etc.
ii) Parasitic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms get their food from
living organisms (host) without killing them. Eg :- cuscuta, orchids, ticks, lice,
leeches, round worm, tape worm, plasmodium etc.
iii) Holozoic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms take food directly and
then digests and absorbs it. Eg :- amoeba, paramaecium, birds, fishes, humans
etc.
Nutrition in animals :-

a) Nutrition in amoeba :-

Amoeba is a unicellular animal living in water. It

takes in food by forming finger like projections called
pseudopodia and forms a food vacuole. Inside the
food vacuole the food is digested and absorbed. The
undigested food is then sent out through the surface
of the cell.
• Ingestion-When Amoeba comes
in contact with food and send out
pseudopodia which engulf the
prey by forming a food cup.
• Digestion- when tip of encircling
psuedopodia touch each other a
food where digestive enzyme act
to digest food.
• Assimilation – the digested food
is absorbed and assimilated in the
cytoplasm
• Egestion- The undigested food is
moved to surface of amoeba cell
and thrown out by rupture of cell
memberane.
 Nutrition in Human beings :-

 Nutrition in human beings takes place in the digestive system.

 It consists of the alimentary canal and glands which produce

enzymes which breaks down food into smaller molecules

 The main organs of the digestive system are mouth, oesophagus,

stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus.

The main glands are salivary glands, gastric glands, liver, pancreas
and intestinal glands.
 Parts of Alimentary
• Mouth- It leads to Buccal cavity which has tougue with taste
buds. It also has teeths (3 2) namely incisors, canines,
premolars and molars.
• Oesophagus- It is a long, narrow muscular tube which leads to
stomach.
• Stomach – Oesophagus leads to stomach where food is stored
and partly digested.
• Small Intestine- It is a convoluted tube and differentiated into
three region duodenum, jejunum and ileum whose inner
surface is folded to form villi which absorb product of
digestion.
• Large intestine- Shorter and wider than small intestine and
also made of three parts caecum, colon and rectum which open
into anus.
 Glands of Digestive System
• Salivary Gland - It secretes the first digestive juice called
saliva which contain amylase enzyme.
• Gastric Gland – These are tubular gland which lie in the
mucus membrane of stomach.They secrete gastric juice which
contain HCL, Mucus and Pepsin enzyme.
• Liver – It is the largest gland in humans.It produces Bile
juices which flows out of liver through bile duct and open into
duodenum.
• Pancreas- Present between loops of duodenum,It secretes
Pancreatic juice which contain enzymes like trypsin,amylase
and Lipase and poured into duodenum through duct.
• Intestinal Gland- Present in wall of ileum and produces
amylolytic, Lipolytic and proteolytic enzyme.
 PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
The process of Digestion can be summarised as :
1. Ingestion- It is intake of food and mouth or Buccal cavity is a
special organ for ingestion of food.
2. Digestion- It is process of conversion of large complex
insoluble molecule to small simple soluble molecule.
Digestion starts from mouth and continues till the ileum of
small intestine.
3. Absorbtion and assimilation- All the digested food is
absorbed in the ileum.
4. Egestion – It is the process of elimination of undigested food
through the anus.
 Ingestion and Digestion
• In the mouth :- The mouth cavity contain teeth, tongue and
salivary gland. The food is broken down into smaller particles
by the teeth and mixed with saliva from the salivary glands by
the help of tongue. Saliva contains the enzyme salivary
amylase which converts starch into maltose . Then the food
passes through the oesophagus into the stomach.
 In the stomach :- The gastric glands produce gastric juice
which contains the enzyme pepsin, hydrochloric acid and
mucous. Pepsin breaks down proteins into peptone and
proteoses. Hydrochloric acid makes the medium acidic and
helps in the action of pepsin and also destroy bacteria present
in food. Mucous protects the walls of the stomach from the
action of the acid. Then the food passes into the small
intestine.
Small Inetstine-
 It is the site of complete digestion of carbohydrate protein and fats.
In the upper part of the small intestine called duodenum the food is
mixed with bile from liver and pancreatic juice from the pancreas.
Bile is alkaline and makes acidic food coming from stomach
alkaline so that pancreatic enzymes can act upon it and also brings
about emulsification of fat that is breaks down fats into smaller
globules so that lipase enzyme can easily act upon it.
Pancreatic juice contains the enzymes trypsin and lipase and
amylase. Trypsin breaks down proteins into peptone and proteases,
lipase breaks down fats into fatty acid and amylase acts on starch to
form maltose.
Intestinal Juice are secreted by the glands present in ileum.
Intestinal juice contain various enzyme that bring about the complete
digestion of carbohydrate to glucose, protein to amino acids and lipids
to fatty acid and glycerol.
 Main digestive enzymes found in our body
S.NO Digestive Enzyme/juice Food Substances produced.
organ acted
upon
1. Mouth Saliva Starch Maltose (sugar)
(salivary Salivary amylase
glands)
2. Stomach Gastric juice - Proteins Peptides (fragments
Pepsin of protein)

3. Pancreas Pancreatic juice:

•Amylase •Starch •Maltose (sugar)
•Trypsin •Proteins •Peptides (very small
•Lipase •Fats fragments)
(lipids) •Fatty acids+ glycerol
4. Small Intestinal juice
intestine •Lipase •Fats •Fatty acids+ glycerol
•Maltase •Maltose •Glucose
•Sucrase •Sucrose •Glucose and fructose
•Peptidase •Peptides •aminoacids
 Absorption and Egestion
 The walls of the small intestine has several finger like
projections called villi having blood vessels. It helps to
increase the surface area for the absorption of digested food.
The digested food is absorbed by the blood and transported to
all cells in the body.
 Then the undigested food passes into the large intestine. In
the large intestine water is absorbed and the waste material is
removed through the anus.
 RESPIRATION
• The process of releasing energy from food is called Respiration.
• Thus the process of respiraton involves taking in oxygen from
the atmosphere and using it for oxidation of assimilated food
(simplest form of food as a result of digestion such as glucose,
amino acids & fatty acid) to release energy which is stored in the
form of ATP and is used for carrying out all the life process
which are necessary to keep the organism alive and also
elimination of waste product from the body.
• Respiration can be summarised as :
 Intake of O2 from surrounding.
 Oxidation of assimilated food.
 Release of Energy and storage in the form of ATP.
 Elimination of CO2 produced as by product.
 Cellular Respiration
• Cellular respiration is the process of
biochemical oxidation of assimilated
nutrients in the presence of specific enzymes
at an optimum temperature and pH in the
mitochondria of the cell to release energy
for various metabolic activities
 Types of respiration

i) Aerobic respiration

 It takes place in the presence of oxygen.

 It produces more energy.
 The end products are carbon dioxide, water and energy. It takes
place in most organisms.
 In aerobic respiration glucose is converted into pyruvate in the
cytoplasm in the presence of oxygen and then in the presence of
oxygen, pyruvate is converted into carbon dioxide, water and energy
in the mitochondria.

presence of oxygen presence of oxygen

Glucose Pyruvate CO2 + H2O +
Energy
in cytoplasm in mitochondria
ii) Anaerobic respiration :- takes place in the absence of oxygen. It
produces less energy. The end products are lactic acid or ethanol,
carbon dioxide, and energy. It takes place in muscle cells and
yeast.
 In anaerobic respiration in muscle cells, glucose is converted
into pyruvate and in the absence of oxygen pyruvate is converted
into lactic acid and energy.
absence of oxygen absence of oxygen
Glucose pyruvate Lactic acid + Energy
in cytoplasm in muscle cells

 In anaerobic respiration in yeast, glucose is converted into

pyruvate and in the absence of oxygen pyruvate is converted into
ethanol, carbondioxide and energy. This process is called
fermentation.
absence of oxygen absence of oxygen
• Glucose Pyruvate Ethanol + CO2 +
Energy
in cytoplasm in yeast
 Breakdown of glucose by various pathways :-

presence
of oxygen
CO2 + H2O + Energy
(in mitochondria)

presence absence
of oxygen of oxygen
Glucose Pyruvate Lactic acid + Energy
in cytoplasm + (in muscle
Energy cells)

absence
of oxygen
Ethanol + CO2 + Energy
(in yeast)
 FATE OF ENERGY

The energy released during respiration is used to make ATP molecules

(Adenosine tri phosphate) from ADP molecules (Adenosine di phosphate)
and inorganic phosphate.ATP is used to fuel all activities in the cell.
Energy
ADP + Phosphate ATP
from respiration

Energy is stored in the cells in the form of ATP molecules. When the cells
need energy, ATP is broken down in the presence of water to form ADP and
energy is released.
water
ATP ADP + Energy
 Respiration in plants
• It takes place in all parts of a plant like root, stem and leaf.
• Exchange of gases in root take place by the process of diffusion, when
oxygen diffuses into the root hair and passes into root cell, from where
carbon dioxide moves out into the soil.
• In leaves respiration also takes place by diffusion of gases through
stomata, CO2 and O2 are exchanged by diffusion here.

Direction of diffusion depends on environmental conditions and

requirements of plants.

• Night no photosynthesis occurs CO2 exchange.

• Day CO2 used by plants  Photosynthesis  no CO2 released to air. O2

is released.
 RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS
Respiration in animals takes place with the help of some
specific respiratory organs which differ in different animal
group according to their habitat.

• Aquatic animals like fish prawns and mussels have gills as

respiratory organs.
• Frogs breaths both by skin and lungs.
• Insects like grasshopper, housefly or cockroach have airtubes
or trachea as their respiratory organ.
• Land animal like lizards,birds,human have lungs for
respiration.
 Respiration in Humans
The main organs of the respiratory system are nostrils, nasal cavity,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs and diaphragm.
ORGANS OF RESPIRATION
• This kind of respiration where lungs are the main organ of
respiration is called as Pulmonary respiration.
• The nose is the first part of the respiratory system. It consists of a
pair of openings called nostrils,which open into the nasal cavity.
• Respiratory system communicates with the outside atmosphere
through external nostrils which draw air into nasal cavity.
• The nasal cavity open into the internal nostrils through which air
enters the pharynx.
• The air passing through the nostrils is filtered by fine hair that lie in
the passage so that air going into the body is free from dust and
other impurities.
• The pharynx is a muscular chamber acting as a common passage
for the windpipe or trachea and the food pipe or oesophagus
• It is connected to the larynx through a slit-like opening called the
glottis.
• A cartilaginous flap called epiglottis acts as a lid over the glottis
and prevents the entry of food inside the larynx. The epiglottis
guards the entrance of the trachea.
• The larynx, also called the voice-box or Adam's apple, is a hollow,
cartilaginous structure located at the beginning of the windpipe. The
larynx connects the pharynx to the trachea.
• The trachea or windpipe begins from the larynx, situated below in
the neck and enters the thoracic cavity.
• The walls of the trachea are strengthened by several C-shaped
rings of cartilage, to protect the air passage from collapsing.
• In the thoracic cavity, the trachea divides into two branches or tubes
called bronchi, one of which enters the right lung and the other
enters the left lung. The bronchi have cartilaginous rings for
distention.
• The bronchi within lungs, branch into smaller tubes called
bronchioles ; and each bronchiole open into many thin walled
ballon like structure called alveoli.
• Alveoli have thin and moist walls which enable gaseous diffusion. A
thin layer of water or fluid covering the surface of the alveoli
dissolves oxygen from the air. The alveoli helps to increase the
surface area for the exchange of gases.
• Capillaries surround the walls of the alveoli. The capillaries bring
blood rich in carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for gaseous
exchange in the alveoli. After oxygen in the alveoli is taken up by the
blood, the capillaries send the blood to all the cells of the body.
• The diaphragm is a curved, musculo-fibrous sheath which
separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. The
diaphragm plays a major role during respiration. The intercostal
muscles found between the ribs and the radial muscles of the
diaphragm bring about the breathing movements.
Mecahanism of breathing :-
When we breathe in air, the muscles of the diaphragm contracts and
moves downward and the chest cavity expands and air enters into the
lungs.
When we breathe out air, the muscles of the diaphragm relaxes and
moves upward and the chest cavity contracts and air goes out of the
lungs.
 Gaseous Exchange in Alveoli

• Deoxygenated blood is brought from the heart into the lungs

through the pulmonary artery. The pulmonary artery divides
into fine capillaries, which surround the alveoli.
• CO2 diffuses into the alveolar cavity because of its higher
concentration in blood.
• The concentration of oxygen in the alveolar air is more than
the concentration of oxygen in the blood capillaries
surrounding the alveoli. Hence, oxygen from the alveolar air
moves into the blood capillaries by the process of diffusion
and combines with haemoglobin of RBC to form
oxyhaemoglobin to be transported throughout the body.
• The exchange of gas occurs through the thin walls of the
capillaries.
 GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN TISSUES

• In the cells, continuous metabolism of glucose and other

substance results in the production of CO2, and utilisation of
O2.
• The concentration of O2 in the cell and tissue fluid decreases
while the concentration of CO2 is higher than in the capillaries.
• Therefore, Oxyhaemoglobin breaks down releasing O2 which
diffuses out from the capillaries into the tissue fluid and then
into each and every cell.
 Transportation
• Transportation is the movement of material from one part to
another, usually from the region of their availability to the region
of their use, storage or elimination. Transportation occurs in all
organism from microscopic ones to large sized trees and animals.
Transportation in Human Being
• In humans transportation of oxygen,nutrients, hormones and
other substances to the tissue,CO2 to the lungs and waste product
to the kidney is carried out by a well defined system called
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.
• The circulatory system comprises of Blood, Blood vessels,
Heart, Lymphatic system and Lymph.
 BLOOD
• It is a bright red coloured liquid connective tissue that circulates
in the entire body by the muscular pumping organ, the heart.The
volume of blood is 6 litres in adult human body.
• The different components of blood are:
 Plasma-It consists of water, in which many substances are
dissolved including Plasma Protein(albumin,globulin, fibrinogen
and antibodies),salts (sodium and potassium chloride and
bicarbonates), food substances (amino acids, glucose, fats)
hormones, digested and waste excretory product. Plasma without
fibrinogen is called serum.
 RBC (Red Blood Corpuscles) or Erythrocytes – These are
minute, circular biconcave disc having no nucleus. They look red
due to the presence of red coloured pigment, haemoglobin which
help in transport of oxygen.
 White Blood Corpuscles (WBC) or Leucocytes- These are
large, nucleated colourless cell and are numerous than
RBC.WBC like eosinophils, neutrophils, monocytes and
lymphocytes protects us against diseases by phagocytosis of
invading organism or by production of antibodies.
 Blood Platelets- Platelets are rounded colourless, biconvex
and non nucleated blood cells which help in coagulation of
blood. They are called as thrombocytes.
 FUNCTION OF BLOOD
• Transport of Oxygen- RBC contain haemoglobin that
combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin which is
transported to tissues and cells for cellular respiration for
release of energy as ATP.
• Transport of CO2-Carbon di oxide which is produced by cell
as a byproduct of cellular respiration is transported by the
blood plasma to the lungs from where it is removed.
• Transport of Nutrients- The digested and absorbed nutrients
like glucose amino acids and fatty acids are first transported to
liver and then to rest of tissue for storage, oxidation and
synthesis of new substances.
• Transport of Excretory Products-Nitrogenous waste like
ammonia, urea and uric acid of the body are transported to the
kidney by blood from where it is eliminated.
• Transport of Hormones – The plasma of blood transports
various hormones from one region to another and bring about
co-ordination in the working of the body.
• Maintenance of pH- The plasma proteins act as buffer system
and maintain required pH of the body tissue.
• Protection from Diseases- The WBC engulf the bacteria and
other disease causing by phagocytosis. The lymphocytes
produce antibodies against invading antigen.
• Clotting of Blood- The plasma protein fibrinogen form a clot
at the site of injury thus preventing further loss of blood.
 BLOOD VESSEL
• Human blood flows inside tubes called blood vessels. Blood
vessels are of three types- Arteries, Veins and Capillaries.
 Arteries: They are blood vessels which carry blood coming
from heart to various organs of the body. Arteries generally,
carry oxygenated blood. Only pulmonary arteries transport
deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs. They are wide and
thick, elastic walled vessels.
 Veins : They are blood vessels which carry blood from various
parts of the body towards the heart. Wall is less thickened and
less elastic as compared to that of arteries. Lumen is wide.
Veins carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary veins that
bring oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart. Veins are
generally superficial
 Capillaries – The arteries divide into smaller vessels on
reaching the organ or tissue which bring blood in contact with
individual cells. They are very narrow blood vessels (4-10 um)
having a single layered wall (endothelium) whiretch is
permeable due to which dissolved substances pass in and out,
exchanging oxygen, carbon di oxide, dissolved nutrients and
excretory product with the tissue.
 THE HEART
• The human heart is a cone shaped, muscular organ situated
under the breastbone and between the lungs inside the thoracic
cavity.
• It is a pumping organ that receives blood from the veins and
pump it into the arteries.
• It is enclosed in a double walled memberanous sac the
pericardium.
Chambers of the Heart
The interior of the heart is divided into four chambers which
receive the circulatory blood.
 Atria- The two upper chambers are called as atria.One of it is
the right atrium and other is left atrium.The atrium are
seperated by a partition called inter atrial septum. The sinatrial
node or pacemaker is located on right atrium.
• Ventricles – The two lower chambers are called as ventricles of these
on is left and other is right ventricle.They are separated from each other
by an inter ventricular septum.
• Valves of the Heart
 The Antrioventicular valve - Each atrium opens into a ventricle of its
own side through an atrio ventricular aperture. The two apertures are
guarded by valves which are muscular flaps , which opens only in the
ventricle and prevents the backward flow of the blood. The left atrium
and ventricle are separated by a pair of flaps called the Bicuspid or
Mitral valve. Similarly the right auricle and ventricle are separated by
three flaps called Tricuspid valve.
 Semilunar Valves – They are located in the arteries leaving the
heart.The Pulmonary semi-lunar valve is present where the pulmonary
trunk leaves right ventricle and aortic semi-lunar valve is present where
aorta leaves left ventricle.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF HEART
 BLOOD FLOW THROUGH THE HEART
• The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from all parts
of the body mainly through two vessels or venacavas.
• From the right atrium blood passes through the tricuspid valve
into the right ventricle.
• When the right ventricle is full it contracts and the blood is
forced into the pulmonary artery that divides into right and left
pulmonary artery and carries it to the lungs for oxygenation.
• After oxygenation, it is returned back to the heart through the
pulmonary vein, which opens into the left atrium.
• The left atrium passes the blood into the left ventricle through
the bicuspid valve. The ventricle on contraction passes this
oxygenated blood into the largest artery aorta.
• The aorta branches into vessels which transports oxygenated
blood to all body parts.
 DOUBLE CIRCULATION IN HUMANS
• The circulatory system of human is called as double circulation as the
blood passes through the heart twice in one complete cycle of the body. It
involves two circulation.
• Pulmonary Circulation: It is movement of blood from heart to the lungs
and back. Deoxygenated blood of the body enters the right auricle, passes
into right ventricle which pumps it into pulmonary arch. With the help of
two separate pulmonary arteries the blood passes into the lungs. Here the
arteries break up into arterioles and then capillaries for oxygenation.
Capillaries join to form venules and then veins. Oxygenated blood comes
back to left auricle of heart through pulmonary veins.
• Systemic Circulation: It is the circulation of blood between heart and
different parts of the body except lungs.Oxygenated blood received by left
auricle passes into left ventricle. The left ventricle pumps it into aorta for
supply to different body parts. From there deoxygenated blood is
collected by venules which join to form veins and finally venacava and
pour blood back into the right auricle.
DOUBLE CIRCULATION
 BLOOD PRESSURE
Blood Pressure: - It is the pressure exerted by the blood on
the wall of the blood vessels in which it is present. It is of two
types: -
a) Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP) : - It is the pressure which
the blood exerts on the wall of the blood vessels at the end of
systolic contraction of ventricles. In a normal resting adult, it
is about 120 mm Hg.
b) Diastolic Blood Pressure (DBP): - It is pressure, which the
blood exerts on the wall of the arteries when the ventricles are
maximally relaxed. In normal resting adult, it is about 80 mm
Hg.
Abnormally high blood pressure called hypertension can lead
to rupture of artery and internal bleeding.
 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
• It is a system of tiny tubes called as lymph vessels and lymph nodes
in the human body which transports lymph from the body tissue to
the blood circulatory system.It runs parallel to veins and consists of
following parts :
 LYMPH- It is also called tissue fluid which is colourless contaning
lymphocytes which fight against infection. It flows in one direction
from tissue to heart. Lymph is also called extracellular fluid as it is
present outside the cell. Lymph drains into Lymphatic Capillaries.
 LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES AND VESSELS- The capillaries
are thin walled forming a network in every organ except nervous
system. These capillaries unite to form vessels which are small veins
in structure.
 LYMPH NODES- They are present in the course of the lymph
vessels .They are rich in phagocytes and lymphocytes that act as
filter for the microorganism.
• FUNCTION OF LYMPH :
 Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and
drains excess fluid from extracellular space back into the
blood.
 It protects the body by killing the germs drained out of the
body tissue with the help of lymphocytes in the lymph node.
Hearts of mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and fishes :-
i) The heart in mammals :- and birds have four chambers and the right and left
sides of the heart is separated by a septum. This prevents mixing of oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood and provides efficient supply of oxygen. This is
necessary because they need more energy to maintain their body temperature.
ii) The heart in amphibians and reptiles :- have three chambers and allows some
mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood because the do not use energy to
maintain their body temperature. Their body temperature is the same as the
temperature of the surroundings.
iii) The heart in fishes :- have only two chambers and blood is oxygenated in the
gills.
 TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
• In plants, transportation of materials like food, water and
minerals takes place through conducting tissues called xylem
and phloem.
TRANSPORTATION OF WATER AND MINERALS
Plants require water for making food by photosynthesis and
also mineral salts for various purpose.The water and minerals
are absorbed from the soil by roots and carried to various parts
by XYLEM.It consists of two kind of elements:
 Vessels- They are cylindrical in shape with their ends open and
are placed one above the other.
 Tracheids- They are elongated , thin, spindle shaped dead cells
with pits in their thick cell wall.
XYLEM
 Mechanism of Transport of Water and Minerals
• Water enters the root hair through osmosis, and mineral ions
enter the root cells by active transport.
• Both water and minerals move upward from cell to cell
through the cortex of the root by osmosis.
• From the cortex, water and minerals are brought to the xylem.
• The sap which contains water and dissolved minerals move
upwards from the root cells to xylem. The upward movement
of sap is called the ascent of sap.
• The xylem vessels of the roots are in continuation with the
xylem vessels of the stem.
• Due to difference in concentration of water in roots and soil, a
column of water is created which ensures that water reaches to
the parts located at a height
• Transpiration is the loss of water in the form of water vapour
from the aerial parts of a plant. It occurs through openings
called stomata.
• Water loss through evaporation lowers the concentration of
water inside mesophyll cells. Due to this,water enters
mesophyll cells from neighbouring xylem vessels through
osmosis.
• As water evaporates from the leaves, a suction force is created.
This force helps to draw more water up through the stem
which causes the roots to absorb more water from the soil.
• Higher the rate of transpiration, greater the rate of absorption
of water and solutes from the soil.
• Transpiration also helps in maintaining the temperature of the
plant body.
 Mechanism of Transport of Water and Minerals
.
TRANSPORT OF FOOD • The food (i.e. sugars and other
AND OTHER metabolites) synthesized in the
SUBSTANCES
leaves are transported to other parts
of plant through the conducting
tissue PHLOEM. It consists of:
 It consists of sieve tubes placed one
above the other forming a continuous
column with the ends covered with
seive plate. Sieve plates have small
pores in them which allow food to
pass through the phloem.
 The movement of food material
through phloem depends upon the
action of living cells called seive
tubes. The food in the phloem can
move in the upward and downward
directions.
 MECHANISM OF TRANSPORT OF FOOD AND
OTHER SUBSTANCES
• Food synthesised during photosynthesis is loaded into sieve
tubes by utilising ATP.
• The presence of food inside the phloem develops the
concentration gradient for water. Thus, water enters the
phloem by osmosis.
• Osmosis develops high pressure inside the phloem which
transports the food from the phloem to plant parts where the
food concentration is less.
• This process is called translocation.
• In spring, the sugar stored in root or stem tissues is
transported to the buds.
 Excretion
• Biological process of eliminating metabolic
waste substances is called excretion.
• Human excretory system consists of pair
of kidney and ureter, a Urinary bladder and
a urethra.
• Nephrons are structural and functional
units of kidney. Ultra filtration, Tubular
reabsorption, and Tubular secretion are
the steps of Urine formation inside a
nephron.
9) Excretion :-
Excretion is the process by which the waste products produced
during metabolic activities is removed from the body.
In unicellular organism the waste products are removed from the
cells into the surroundings by diffusion.
In multicellular organisms the waste prducts are removed through
specialised organs.
a) Excretion in Human beings :-
The excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys , a pair of
ureters, urinary bladder and urethra. Each kidney has a number of
excretory units called nephrons.
 Structure of NEPHRON
• Each kidney has numerous filtration units
called Nephrons.
• These Nephrons consist of Glomerulus,
Bowman’s capsule, Renal artery, renal
vein, collecting duct, etc.
• The blood is filtered in these units, then
collected in the collecting tubule/duct.
• This collection is then passed to an organ
called urinary bladder where it is stored
until thrown out of the body.
Nephron :-
Each nephron has a cup like structure called Bowman’s capsule
containing a bundle of capillaries called glomerulus. The Bowman’s
capsule leads into a tubular structure which joins into a collecting duct.
The renal artery brings the nitrogenous waste like ammonia, urea, uric
acid (urine) along with excess water, salts etc. into the nephron. It filters
the nitrogenous waste, water and salts which passes through the
tubular structure into the collecting duct. The waste then passes
through the ureters into the urinary bladder and is then sent out through
the urethra
as urine.
The useful products like amino acids, glucose, salts etc. are
reabsorbed by the capillaries around the tubular structure and goes into
the real vein.
b) Excretion in plants :-
In plants the gaseous waste products produced during respiration
(CO2) and photosynthesis (O2) are removed through the stomata. Excess
water is removed through the stomata. This process is called
transpiration.
Some waste products are stored in the leaves and removed when the
leaves dry and fall off. Some waste products are stored in vacuoles.
Some waste products like gums and resins are stored in the old xylem
cells. Some waste products are removed through the roots.