ME485

Heat Exchanger and

Steam Generator Design
Lecture Notes 5
Fouling of Heat Exchangers
 Fouling
Accumulation of undesirable deposit on a HEX surface.
Fouling occurs in natural systems as well.
 Introduction
• HEX are designed for thermal processes to work within
allowable pressure drop limits and for a specified time
period.
• Fouling results in higher thermal resistance and higher
pressure drop, thus pumping power.
• Excessive fouling causes HEX cleaning or replacement.
• Fouling affects the initial cost
(more material may be needed),
operating cost (cleaning is very
expensive!), and HEX
performance significantly.
 Basic Considerations
• Remember rate of heat transfer (general form)
Q  U A Tm
• U will be different for clean HEX and fouled HEX surfaces.
They can be related by
1 1 A oR fi Rft: total fouling
  R ft , R ft   R fo
Uf Uc Ai resistance
• Heat transfer rate under fouled conditions is
Q f  Uf A f Tmf
• Specified processes fix Q and Tm under both conditions, so
Af
 1  UcR ft
Ac
• UcRft : Additional surface area required due to fouling
Figure 5.2 Effect of Fouling on Surface Area
 Effects of Fouling
Effect of fouling on heat transfer
• Overall heat transfer coefficient decreases
1
Uf 
Ao Ao A ln(do / di ) 1
 R fi  o  R fo 
A ihi A i 2kL ho

• Average Rft values specified in the design of ~750

shell-and-tube HEX are given in Table 5.1
• Using Table 5.1 and typical h values for boiling, condensation,
and gas flow, Table 5.2 is prepared.
• Table 5.2 shows % increase in area for shell-and-tube boiler,
evaporator, and condensers; single-phase flow on tube side.
 Effect of fouling on pressure drop
• The change in flow geometry due to fouling affects the flow field
and pressure drop, thus pumping power.
• Remember pressure drop
L um2
p  4f
di 2
• Assuming that mass flow rate is the same under clean and
fouled conditions,
5
p f ff  dc 
  
pc fc  df 
• Inner diameter under fouled conditions and fouling thickness

 2k f R f    2k f R f 
df  dc exp   t f  0.5dc 1 - exp  
 dc    dc 
• Table 5.3 lists kf, tf, % area remaining, and % increase in p of
typical fouling materials
 p increase up to 70% (assuming ff = fc) Note corrections
on formulas
Effect of fouling on cost
• Increased capital expenditure
– Heat transfer area is increased
– Pumps and fans are oversized
– May need duplicate HEX during cleaning
• Increased maintenance cost due to on-line and off-line
cleaning
• Loss of production due to operation at reduced capacity
• Energy losses
Aspects of Fouling (read Section 5.4 for detail)
Fouling is named as the major unresolved problem in heat transfer.

Categories of fouling (classified according to principal

processes that cause it)
• Particulate (solid particle accumulation on surface)
• Crystallization (mainly due to dissolved inorganic salts)
• Corrosion (corrosive fluids or impurities)
• Biofouling (material of biological origin; bacteria, mold,
seaweed)
• Chemical reaction (polymerization, coking of hydrocarbons)

Different types of fouling can occur simultaneously, or

complement each other.
Fundamental processes of fouling (fouling mechanisms)
• Initiation (surface conditioning – temperature, material,
roughness, etc.)
• Transport (diffusion, sedimentation, and thermophoresis)
• Attachment
• Removal (due to shear forces; dissolution, erosion,
spalling)
• Aging (property change)
Prediction of fouling (fouling mechanisms)
• We must know how fouling progresses with time
• The constant value of Rf used is the value reached before
cleaning
• Variation of fouling with time Figure 5.3 Typical Rf – time curve
dR f
  d  r
dt
d : deposit rate
r : removal rate

tD : delay time
 Figure 5.3 continued
• Linear (A)
– Constant d + negligible r (gives Rf = f t), or constant d - r
– Tough, hard, adherent deposits
– Fouling increases until cleaning
• Asymptotic (B)
– Constant d and r proportional to fouling layer thickness
– Stability of the layer deteriorates
– Soft, flaky deposits
• Falling-rate fouling (C)
– d inversely proportional to fouling layer thickness
• Saw tooth (D)
– Periodic change in operating conditions
 Design of HEX Subject to Fouling
• Fouling provisions must be made during design stage.
• Operating characteristics and cleaning schedules
depend on the design fouling factor.
• Several approaches to provide allowance for fouling,
all result in excess heat transfer surface area.
• We will cover three methods:
- Specifying fouling resistances
- The cleanliness factor (CF)
- Percent over surface (OS)
Fouling Resistance
• Specify Rf initially  U   Excess surface area
• HEX will perform until Rf is reached, then it must be cleaned.
• TEMA Tables 5.5 - 5.11 provide Rf for various (but limited)
process fluids, flow conditions, and HEX configurations.
Cleanliness Factor (developed for the steam power industry)
Uf
CF 
Uc 1  CF 1
 R ft  or CF 
1 1 Uc CF 1  R ftUc
  R ft
Uf Uc

• Figure 5.4 gives Rft based on CF for Uc values

• Low velocities, thus low
Uc increase fouling.
• Typical value for CF
is 0.85
Percent Over Surface
• In design, add a % of clean surface area to account for
fouling
• Taking Q and Tm same under both conditions,

 Af 
OS  100  1  100UcR ft
 Ac 

• Typical value for OS is 25%

• e.g. in shell-and-tube HEX, provide additional surface by
increasing tube length or number of tubes (thus, shell
diameter)
• The changes will affect design conditions (flow
velocities, number of passes, baffle spacing, etc.)
Relationship between Rf, CF, and OS
(Table 5.12, for Example 5.1 in book)

Rft (m2K/W) CF OS (%)

0.00005 0.85 17.7
0.00010 0.74 35.3
0.00015 0.65 53.0
0.00020 0.59 70.7
0.00025 0.53 88.4
0.00030 0.49 106.0
0.00035 0.45 123.7
0.00040 0.41 141.4

Review Examples 5.1-5.3 in book.

Example 5.3 discusses the operation of a HEX with fouling
 Techniques to Control Fouling
• Surface cleaning techniques (on-line or off-line)
- Continuous cleaning (installation of cleaning materials
into the system)
- Periodic cleaning (mechanical or chemical removal of
fouling)
• Chemical additives
- Crystallization fouling: acids and polyphosphates added
to increase solubility (easier removal) of fouling
deposits
- Particulate fouling: flocculants (coagulants) used to aid
filtration of particles, dispersants to keep particles in
suspension
- Biological fouling: chlorine or other biocides
- Corrosion fouling: additives to produce protective films
on the surface