Chapter 2 : IT Infrastructure

Telecommunications, the Internet, and Wireless

Technology, Server Infrastructure (File Servers,
Exchange Servers,  Application Servers, Database
servers) - Network Infrastructure (WAN, LAN, Firewalls,
DMZ), Storage Infrastructure (NetApps & SAN
boxes), Emerging Technologies in IT infrastructure.
IT infrastructure includes the shared technology resources that provide a platform for the firm’s
specific information system applications. It includes investment in hardware, software, and services
—such as consulting, education, and training—that are shared across the entire firm or across entire
business units in the firm. Information systems collect and store the company’s key data and produce
the information managers need for analysis, control, and decision-making. A typical firm's IT
infrastructure can be divided into three major levels: public, enterprise and business unit. Each level
has its own unique hardware, software, and service components.
1. Public level :- includes the Internet, public telephone networks on which businesses are
increasingly reliant, Industry-operated networks, cable systems, satellite systems, and cellular
telephone networks.
2. Enterprise level :- may include email, Web sites, intranets, extranets, and enterprise
applications.
3. Business unit level :- concentrate on those infrastructure components that service the four
functional areas of a typical business: sales & marketing, production & manufacturing, finance,
and human resources
 Infrastructure Components
• Hardware platforms include client machines and server machines, as well as modern mainframes produced by IBM. Blade
servers are ultrathin servers, intended for a single dedicated application, and are mounted in space-saving racks.
• Operating system platforms include platforms for client computers, dominated by Windows operating systems, and servers,
dominated by the various forms of the UNIX operating system or Linux. Operating systems are software that manage the
resources and activities of the computer and act as an interface for the user.
• Enterprise and other software applications include SAP, Oracle, and PeopleSoft, and middleware software that are used to link a
firm's existing application systems.
• Data management and storage is handled by database management software and storage devices include traditional storage
methods, such as disk arrays and tape libraries, and newer network-based storage technologies such as storage area networks
(SANs). SANs connect multiple storage devices on dedicated high-speed networks.
• Networking and telecommunications platforms include Windows server operating systems, Novell, Linux, and UNIX. Nearly all
LAN and many wide area networks (WANs) use the TCP/IP standards for networking.
• Internet platforms overlap with, and must relate to, the firm's general networking infrastructure and hardware and software
platforms. Internet-related infrastructure includes the hardware, software and services to maintain corporate Web sites,
intranets, and extranets, including Web hosting services and Web software application development tools. A Web hosting
service maintains a large Web server, or series of servers, and provides fee-paying subscribers with space to maintain their Web
sites.
• Consulting and system integration services are relied on for integrating a firm's legacy systems with new technology and
infrastructure and providing expertise in implementing new infrastructure along with relevant changes in business processes,
training, and software integration. Legacy systems are generally older transaction processing systems created for mainframe
computers that continue to be used to avoid the high cost of replacing or redesigning them.
Characterstics
1. Flexible: The business information systems are subject to the dynamics of business environment and
need to be flexible enough to absorb the inevitable changes in the information needs of business. They
have to be efficient to satisfy the demanding and ‘hard task masters,’ the business managers. Thus,
there is need to balance the conflicting objectives in the process of designing business information
systems.
2. Proactive: Business information systems need to be proactive. They should anticipate changes in
information needs of users and accordingly adapt themselves to suit their needs. This has become
important because of the fact that the managers get involved in the routine activities to the extent that
the decision making becomes a matter of imitating what competitors are doing or planning to do,
rather than making an informed choice.
3. Help in Decision Making: The purpose of business information system is to cater to the information
needs for decision making in business.
4. Needs Financial and HR support to work: The business information systems have to be designed
keeping in view the availability of financial and human resources to the business enterprise.
5. Cost Effective: The cost effectiveness is a matter of prime concern in the development and
maintenance of business information systems. Economic justification for investment in IT infrastructure
for business information systems is a pre condition for its existence and sustenance.
 Telecommunication
The electronic transmission of information over distances is called telecommunication. It is a physical medium through which all Internet
traffic flows. This includes telephone wires, cables (including submarine cables), satellites, microwaves, and mobile technology such as
fifth-generation (5G) mobile networks. Even the standard electric grid can be used to relay Internet traffic utilising power-line technology.
Innovative wireless solutions like Internet balloons and drones are also gradually being deployed. Computers and telecommunications
create value together.

Telecommunications are the means of electronic transmission of information over distances. The information may be in the form of voice
telephone calls, data, text, images, or video. Today, telecommunications are used to organize more or less remote computer systems into
telecommunications networks. These networks themselves are run by computers. A telecommunications network is an arrangement of
computing and telecommunications resources for communication of information between distant locations.

A telecommunications network includes the following components:

1. Terminals for accessing the network
2. Computers that process information and are interconnected by the network
3. Telecommunications links that form a channel through which information is transmitted from a sending device to a receiving device.
4. Telecommunications equipment that facilitates the transmission of information.
5. Telecommunications software that controls message transmission over the network.
 Key Telecommunications Network Components
Network Examples
Network Internet, Intranet, Extranet, Wide Area, Local Area, Client Server, Network
Computing, Peer to Peer
Media Twisted Pair wire, Coaxial Cable, Fiber Optic, Microwave Radio, Communication
Satellites, Cellular Systems, Wireless System (Mobile and LAN)
Processors Modems, Multiplexes, Switches, Hubs, Gateways, front end processors, private
bench exchanges
Software Network Operating Systems, Telecommunications Monitors, Web browsers,
middleware
Channels Analog / Digital, Switched / Unswitched, Circuit/Message/Package/Cell switching,
bandwidth
Topology Star, Ring, Bus, Tree and Hybrid, OSI and TCP/IP architecture
Internet
• Internet : The Internet is a giant network connecting devices across geographical regions. It holds the
public area of a company like web site that anyone can access. It should contain marketing information,
general company information, service offerings, contact data, and relevant market information.
• Intranet : In contrast, only company personnel are allowed to access an intranet, which is the private area
of a company Web site. Numerous applications are found in this area, including contact management
programs, company calendars, company rosters, commission management programs, and listing
management programs.
• Extranet : The extranet is a private area of a company Web site that clients, outside contractors, and
business affiliates can access. Extranets often are password-protected and also may have other hardware-
and software-based security systems. This area should contain information that the company feels is
appropriate to share with its outside contacts, such as company rosters and project management cabinets,
which are central places to share files or other information relating to a particular project.
There are two principal LAN designs:
1. Peer-to-peer - peripherals are located at terminals and system administration is largely left up to the users
2. Server-based networks - shared resources are placed a dedicated server that manage a given resource on behalf of user
workstations sharing the resource (file server, printer server, gateway, optical disk server). Most of the servers are dedicated
to their task; using them as workstations degrades the performance of the net.

Wide area network (WAN): is a telecommunications network that covers a large geographical area.
Characteristics of a WAN: 
a. The information system of an entire organization may be structured as a hierarchy. The WANs system architecture looks
very much like an organization chart.
b. WANs connect all the divisional minicomputers to the headquarters mainframe with a variety of local microcomputers and
terminals located at remote sites connected, in turn, to the minicomputers.
c. WANs provide the backbone through which all other nodes (computers and terminals) communicate.
d. WANs often use telecommunication links and equipment provided by specialized vendors, called common carriers.
e. WANs serve to interconnect multiple LANs and can make specific resources available to a large number of workstations.

Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) - are telecommunications networks that interconnect various local area networks
within a metropolitan area, that is, within approximately a 50-mile range.
Characteristics of a MAN: 
a. Purpose of MANs is to interconnect various LANs within a metropolitan area, that is, within approximately a 50 - mile
range.
b. Generally, the speed of MANs is equal to that of LANs and they use similar technology.
Interorganizational Information Systems - are shared by two or more companies.
Client Server Network Model
Peer to Peer Network
 Basis Peer to Peer Client Server
Client and Server Clients and server are not Clients and server are differentiated,
Relation differentiated. Specific server and clients are
present.
Focus Focuses on connectivity. Focuses on information sharing.

Data Each peer has its own data. Centralized server is used to store
the data.
Service Request Each node can do both request and Server respond the services which is
respond for the services. request by Client.

Cost Less costly Costlier

Stability Less stable More stable

Network Suitable Suited for small networks with fewer Used for both small and large
than 10 computers. networks.
 Wireless Technology
Wi-Fi wireless technology saves businesses a considerable amount of money on installation costs.
Companies no longer have to physically run wires throughout an office building, warehouse or store. This is
especially handy for businesses that have workers that move throughout the location, but still need to stay
connected to inventory or sales software through portable devices. Bluetooth is a short-range wireless
technology that acts as a complement to Wi-Fi. It is often used to transfer data between a computer and a
cell phone or connect a wireless headset. Workers gain flexibility while businesses reduce investment costs.
Cell phones, laptops and netbooks combined with GPS, Wi-Fi and Bluetooth wireless technologies have
created the potential for a powerful mobile workforce. Wireless technologies ensure that businesses aren't
tied down to a single location.
• GPS devices have gone from expensive premium items to common business accessories. GPS technology
has been a boon to the industry when it comes to finding efficient routes and tracking vehicles. Traveling
employees can use GPS devices to get to their destinations on time. On-time customer service translates
into happy customers.
• Smartphones have all the same business benefits of regular cell phones--such as keeping mobile
employees in touch--and adds in features like powerful business applications and easy Internet access.
Mobile invoicing software, calendars and email mean that employees and owners are always up-to-date
on business happenings and can respond quickly to customer requests.
• Wi-Fi is now built into new laptops and gives workers the opportunity to connect easily from hotels, coffee
shops, home offices, book stores and client sites. It is a big boost to business efficiency when research,
invoicing, email and project development can be handled without having to return to a desktop computer
at the main office. This approach helps to keep small businesses nimble and competitive
 The Eras of Business Computing
Era Hardware Operating System Applications

Terminals connected to
Mainframe (1970s) Time-sharing (TSO) on MVS Custom-written MRP software
mainframe computer.

IBM PC or compatible.
Sometimes connected to
PC (mid-1980s) MS-DOS WordPerfect, Lotus 1-2-3
mainframe computer via
expansion card.

Client-Server (late 80s to early IBM PC “clone” on a Novell

Windows for Workgroups Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel
90s) Network.

World Wide Web (mid-90s to IBM PC “clone” connected to Microsoft Office, Internet
Windows XP
early 2000s) company intranet. Explorer

Laptop connected to company

Web 2.0 (mid-2000s to present) Windows 7 Microsoft Office, Firefox
Wi-Fi.

Mobile-friendly websites, mobile

Post-PC (today and beyond) Apple iPad iOS
apps
 Types of server hardware
The mainframes of the 1950s and 1960s can be considered the original servers, but the history of servers in the modern sense got
underway in the 1990s with the invention of web and rack-mounted servers. Financial services firms conducting concurrent, real-time
transactions are among the typical mainframe customers. The primary drawbacks to mainframes are their size and price tag.
• Tower servers. A tower server resides in an upright, standalone cabinet, resembling a tower-style PC. These servers provide the benefit
of easier cooling because they offer a relatively low component density. They are also comparatively inexpensive, making them an option
for smaller businesses on a limited budget. Tower servers, however, take up more space than other server types.
• Rack servers. A rack server, as its name suggests, is designed to be mounted on a server rack in a data center. Rack servers often play an
all-around computing role in the data center, supporting a multitude of workloads. These take up less space than a tower server. Cable
management, however, can prove a challenge when maintaining rack servers, which are tethered to power supplies. A rack server is
designed to fit into a standard-size metal frame.
• Blade servers. A blade server is a compact device that houses multiple thin, modular circuit boards called server blades. Each blade
contains a single server, which is often assigned to one application. Since blade servers tend to be dedicated, admins have greater
control regarding how they are accessed and how data is transferred among devices.A blade server segregates processors, memory, I/O,
disk, power and other components into separate modules. Blade servers offer greater processing density than other server types,
providing a potential price and performance advantage. Other blade server benefits include cooling – with each blade being cooled
individually by fans -- minimal wiring, low-power use and storage consolidation. Blade server systems are also simpler to repair than rack
servers due to their hot-swappable, modular components.
• Hyper-converged infrastructure (HCI). HCI systems aim to provide a simpler alternative to traditional IT infrastructure, pulling together
compute power, storage and hypervisor technology in an integrated system. With a typical hyper-convergence offering, a mid-level data
center engineer should be able to complete the tasks of initial hardware configuration, hypervisor deployment and software-defined
storage implementation in about an hour. Vendors' products offer setup wizards to gather the appropriate information. The
implementation processes are mostly automated.
 Server Hardware Infrastructure
The key components of server hardware architecture include the motherboard, processor, random
access memory (RAM) and storage.
• The motherboard resides at the heart of server, providing the central nexus through which
system components are interconnected and external devices attached. Advanced Technology
Extended and Low-Profile Extension are the main types of motherboards, with Balance
Technology Extended, Pico BTX and Mini Information Technology Extended motherboards
addressing the needs of smaller form factors.
• The processor, or central processing unit (CPU), resides on the motherboard. CPU components
include the arithmetic logic unit, floating point unit, registers and cache memory. A server might
also contain a graphics processing unit (GPU), which can support applications such as machine
learning and simulations. And the arrival of tensor processing units and neural processing units
offers additional levels of processor specialization.
• RAM microchips also plug into the motherboard, serving as a system's main memory. RAM holds
the OS, applications and in-use data for fast access by the processor. As for storage, a server
might use a hard disk drive, a solid-state drive (SSD) or a mix of both.
 File Server

A file server is a central server instance in a computer network that enables connected clients to
access the server’s storage capacities. The term encompasses both
the hardware and software needed to implement such a server. As long as they have received
the corresponding authorizations, accessing users can open, read, change, and delete files and
folders on a file server as well as even upload their own files to the server.
Exchange Server
The technology working behind emails and their synchronization with mobiles is a ‘mail exchange server‘.
Exchange server has four primary components which work hand-in-hand to run the process smoothly. The
components of the mail exchange server are:
1.) Information Store: This is the place where email messages are stored, located and organized.
2.)System Attendant: It makes these messages relevant to the client sending and receiving the message. In
other words, it creates and manages email addresses.
3.)  Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): This is the component that plays the vital role. It allows inter-server
message transmission. Often messages are supposed to be relayed from one server to another, especially in
the case where the location of the recipient client is quite far, and/or is using a non-Microsoft email provider.
4.) Active Directory: Its job is to update the system attendant with new mailbox information. It also manages
user accounts and distribution lists by itself.
 Application Server
Application Server is a type of server designed to install, operate, and host applications. These servers physically or
virtually sit between database servers storing application data and web servers communicating with clients. App servers
and middleware are the operating systems supporting an application’s development and delivery. Whether it’s a
desktop, mobile, or web app, application servers play a critical role in connecting a world of devices. Application servers
contain features for security, transactions, services, clustering, diagnostics, and databases. Where application servers
deviate is their ability to process servlet requests from a web server.
Application server terminology
Web server Responsible for storing, processing, and delivering data I/O for web pages
Web client Endpoint attempting to access web or application resources
HTTPS Communication protocol between web server and web clients
Servlet/JSON Language for exchange between web and application servers
Business logic Rules for data storage and transfer of application resources
Application A software program or website attached to a database
 Advantages
● Provides a mechanism for dealing with all the components and running services like session management, synchronous and asynchronous client

notifications.

● It becomes very easy to install applications in one place.

● Changing to any configuration, such as moving the Database server, can be done centrally from one location.

● Patches and security updates are easy to deploy through them.

● It enables the ability to distribute requests to different servers based on their availability. This is done via Load Balancing.

● It provides security to applications.

● It enables fault tolerance with the ability to recover/failover recovery.

● It saves big time if we are required to install a copy of configurations on each machine individually.

● It supports transaction support.

● When it comes to performance, the application server greatly improves application performance as it is based on the client-server model.
 Scope of Telecommunications Networks
Two principal types of telecommunications networks can be distinguished from the point of view of their geographical scope. They
are:
1. Local area networks
2. Wide area networks

Local area network (LAN): is a privately owned network that interconnects processors, usually microcomputers, within a building or
on a campus site that includes several buildings.
Characteristics of a LAN: 
a. LANs are the principal tool of workgroup computing
b. LANs ensure high-speed communication within a limited area and enables the users to share facilities (peripherals) connected to it.
c. Usually include a large-capacity, secondary storage device, where database and applications software are maintained, managed by
a microcomputer acting as a file server that delivers data or program files to other computers.
d. Facilities (peripherals) may include jukebox optical memory and fast printers
e. Frequently, one of the facilities (peripherals) in a LAN is the gateway hardware and software that give the network users access to
other networks.
f. More group members may connect to the network from remote sites using wireless telecommunications.
g. Links and equipment of LANs are owned by the user company, and these networks are generally much faster than WANs.
h. LANs are generally composed of a network of microcomputers
 Types
Application servers can be of 3 categories:

● Active Application Server – This server is used to provide support and a rich environment for business logic that
is involved on the server-side, which is expressed in the form of rules, components, and objects. These types of
servers are also called stateful server.
● Web Information Server – This type of server is used for generating pages from the database
by employing HTML templates. These types of servers are also known as stateless servers.
● Component Server – This software plays a primary role in providing database access to software components
such as COBRA, DLL, and Java Bean. It also provides support to transaction processing requests
 Database Server
Database servers are high-powered computers that store and manage data stored on a server for a network of users and devices. It
offers central data management, security, controls for access and permissions, and an interactive repository for a network of users.
They are high-powered appliances capable of working with multiple databases to serve resources to clients, sometimes with assistance
from intermediaries like application servers and web servers.Most database servers operate on the client-server model, receiving
requests from client devices and their respective users and then returning the desired response.

A database server is a machine running database software dedicated to providing database services. It is a crucial component in the
client-server computing environment where it provides business-critical information requested by the client systems.A database server
consists of hardware and software that run a database.

The software side of a database server, or the database instance, is the back-end database application.

The application represents a set of memory structures and background processes accessing a set of database files.

The hardware side of a database server is the server system used for database storage and retrieval.

Database workloads require a large storage capacity and high memory density to process data efficiently. These requirements mean
that the machine hosting the database is usually a dedicated high-end computer.
A database management system (DBMS) is software for storing, retrieving, and managing data. First developed in the
1960s, DBMS technology has been essential to the data-driven economy. Today’s most deployed database server type is
RDBMS, but object-oriented DBMS is a popular choice for developers.

Technical Features of DBMS

· Database languages for defining entities, relationships, constraints, and privileges
· Transactional processing to manage simultaneous use and data loss prevention
· Database tuning to monitor and improve database performance
· Nonprocedural access for non-technical users requiring access
· Procedural language interface for programming language configuration
· Application development for configuring user input policies

Types of DBMS
1. Hierarchical : A tree-like system where all data is represented by parent-child relationships.
2. Network : Like hierarchical, but this system can have multiple parents, creating numerous data paths.
3. Relational (RDBMS) : The most implemented system; normalizes data and organizes it logically in independent
tables.
4. Object-Oriented : Envisioned for object-oriented coding languages; working with complex data objects.
 Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as
computer, switches or routers, servers connected back to back
using a single piece of cable. Often, the receiving end of one host
is connected to sending end of the other and vice-versa. If the
hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have
Point-to-Point multiple intermediate devices. But the end hosts are unaware of
underlying network and see each other as if they are connected
directly.
 Bus Topology
In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable. Bus topology may have problem while
multiple hosts sending data at the same time. Therefore, Bus topology either uses CSMA/CD technology or
recognizes one host as Bus Master to solve the issue. It is one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a
device does not affect the other devices. But failure of the shared communication line can make all other devices
stop functioning. Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in only one direction and as
soon as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes the data from the line. 
Features of Bus Topology
1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages Disadvantages
It is very simple to install. It is very difficult to troubleshoot.
It uses less cable than other topologies. It provides a slow data transfer speed.
It is relatively inexpensive. A single fault can bring the entire network down.
 Star Topology
All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device, using a point-to-
point connection. That is, there exists a point-to-point connection between hosts and hub. The hub
device can be any of the following:
Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater
Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
Layer-3 device such as router or gateway
As in Bus topology, hub acts as single point of failure. If hub fails, connectivity of all hosts to all other
hosts fails. Every communication between hosts, takes place through only the hub. Star topology is
not expensive as to connect one more host, only one cable is required, and configuration is simple.

Features of Star Topology

• Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
• Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
• Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
Advantages Disadvantages
It is easy to install. It uses more cables than other
topologies.
Relocating computers is easier than other If the centralized device fails, it brings
topologies. the entire network down.
Since each computer uses its separate cable, The total installation cost is higher
a fault in the cable does affect other than the other topologies.
computers of the network.

Troubleshooting is relatively easy. Use the twisted pair cable which is

prone to break.
It provides a higher data transfer speed. Too many cables make the network
messy.
 Ring Topology
In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating a circular network
structure. When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host which is not adjacent to it, the
data travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the existing structure, the
administrator may need only one more extra cable. Failure of any host results in failure of the whole
ring.Thus, every connection in the ring is a point of failure. There are methods which employ one more
backup ring. Features of Ring Topology
1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if someone wants
to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass
through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections between
each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction in them. Also,
if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass through each
node of the network, till the destination node.
Advantages Disadvantages
It does not use terminators. It uses more cables.
It is relatively easy to troubleshoot. It is too expensive.
Since data flows only in one direction, there is no A single break in the cable can bring the entire
collision in the network. network down.
Mesh Topology
In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts. This topology has hosts in point-to-point connection
with every other host or may also have hosts which are in point-to-point connection to few hosts only. Hosts in Mesh
topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not have direct point-to-point links. Required connections = n * (n-1)/2
Here, n is the number of end devices or locations. For example, to make a fully meshed network of 4 end devices, we need
4*(4-1)/2 = 6 connections. There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :
MESH Topology: Routing - In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to
direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or routing logic which has information about the
broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.
MESH Topology: Flooding -In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load over the network.
Features of Mesh Topology
Fully connected.
Robust.
Not flexible.
Mesh technology comes into two types:
Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in the network. Thus, for every new host n(n-1)/2
connections are required. It provides the most reliable network structure among all network topologies.
Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host. Hosts connect to each other in some
arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists where we need to provide reliability to some hosts out of all.
 Tree Topology
Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network topology in use presently. It imitates as extended Star topology and
inherits properties of bus topology. It divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network. Mainly in LANs, a network is bifurcated into three
types of network devices. The lowermost is access-layer where computers are attached. The middle layer is known as distribution layer, which works
as mediator between upper layer and lower layer. The highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point of the network, i.e. root of the tree
from which all nodes fork. All neighbouring hosts have point-to-point connection between them. Similar to the Bus topology, if the root goes down,
then the entire network suffers. Every connection serves as point of failure, failing of which divides the network into unreachable segment.

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

3. Extension of bus and star topologies.

4. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.

5. Easily managed and maintained.

6. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

Heavily cabled. Costly. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult. Central hub fails, network fails.
 Hybrid Topology
A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits
and demerits of all the incorporating topologies. The combining topologies may contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-
chain topologies. Most WANs are connected by means of Dual-Ring topology and networks connected to them are mostly Star
topology networks. Internet is the best example of largest Hybrid topology
Features of Hybrid Topology
1. It is a combination of two or topologies
2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
3. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
4. Effective.
5. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
6. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
7. Complex in design.
8. Costly.
Twisted Pair Cable
Cellular network is an underlying technology for cell phones, personal communication systems, wireless networking etc. The
technology is developed for mobile radio telephone to replace high power transmitter/receiver systems. Cellular networks use lower
power, shorter range and more transmitters for data transmission. Wireless Cellular Systems solves the problem of spectral
congestion and increases user capacity. Cellular network is organized into multiple low power transmitters each 100w or less.

Features of Cellular Systems

1. Offer very high capacity in a limited spectrum.

2. Reuse of radio channel in different cells.

3. Enable a fixed number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large number of users by reusing the channel throughout the coverage
region.

4. Communication is always between mobile and base station (not directly between mobiles).

5. Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels within a small geographic area called a cell.

6. Neighbouring cells are assigned different channel groups.

7. By limiting the coverage area to within the boundary of the cell, the channel groups may be reused to cover different cells.

8. Keep interference levels within tolerable limits.

9. Frequency reuse or frequency planning.

10. Organization of Wireless Cellular Network.

 
Basis for Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex
Comparison

Direction of Unidirectional Two-directional, one at a Two-directional,

Communication time simultaneously

Send / Receive Sender can only Sender can send and Sender can send and
send data receive data, but one a receive data
time simultaneously

Performance Worst performing Better than Simplex Best performing mode

mode of of transmission
transmission

Example Keyboard and Walkie-talkie Telephone

monitor
Emerging Technologies
 References
• https://masomomsingi.com/information-technology-it-infrastructure-
notes-pdf/

• https://cs.furman.edu/~pbatchelor/mis/Slides/Infrastructure%20Hard
ware%20and%20Software%20Week%202.pdf

• https://www.umsl.edu/~joshik/msis480/chapt07.htm

• https://www.educba.com/what-is-application-server/

• https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/storage-n
etwork