MODULE 2:

TEXT STRUCTURE
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, you
will be able to:
1. identify the different text
structures of academic
texts; and
2. use knowledge of text
structure to glean the
information needed for
better understanding of
academic texts.
ON TEXT STRUCTURE
- As you progress in your schooling, you will encounter a
lot of texts. Most texts that you will read in school,
except for pieces of literature, are mostly expository in
nature. They intend to present information and ideas
that will help you not only academically but personally
or professionally. It is therefore important that you
must be aware of their structure so that you can easily
read them.
A.Text Structure Defined
- Text structure refers to how a text
is organized.
- Text structure refers to the
semantic and syntactic
organizational arrangements
used to present written
information.
- The way a text is organized aids the
reader to easily find information
needed or to identify relationships
inside the text.
B. 7 TYPES OF TEXT STRUCTURE
1. Cause-and-effect
2. Chronological/Time Order
3. Comparison and Contrast
4. Definition
5. Description
6. Problem-Solution Structure
7. Sequential Order/Process Exposition
 1. Cause and Effect
- Cause and effect is a common way to
organize information in a text.
Paragraphs structured as cause
and effect explain reasons why
something happened or the effects of
something. These paragraphs can be
ordered as causes and effects or as
effects and then causes. The cause
and effect text structure is generally
used in expository and persuasive
writing modes.
- There are two main ways to structure a cause and effect
essay. These are similar to the ways to structure
problem-solution essays, namely using a block or a chain
structure. For the block structure, all of the causes are listed
first, and all of the effects are listed afterwards. For the
chain structure, each cause is followed immediately by the
effect. Usually that effect will then be the cause of the next
effect, which is why this structure is called 'chain'. Both
types of structure have their merits. The former is generally
clearer, especially for shorter essays, while the latter ensures
that any effect you present relate directly to the causes you
have given.
Example of Cause and Effect Essay:
Effects of Automobiles
"I worry about the private automobile. It is a dirty, noisy, wasteful, and
lonely means of travel. It pollutes the air, ruins the safety and sociability
of the street, and exercises upon the individual a discipline which takes
away far more freedom than it gives him. It causes an enormous amount
of land to be unnecessarily abstracted from nature and from plant life
and to become devoid of any natural function. It explodes cities,
grievously impairs the whole institution of neighborliness, fragmentizes
and destroys communities. It has already spelled the end of our cities as
real cultural and social communities, and has made impossible the
construction of any others in their place. Together with the airplane, it
has crowded out other, more civilized and more convenient means of
transport, leaving older people, infirm people, poor people and children
in a worse situation than they were a hundred years ago." (George F.
2. Chronological
Order
- Remember that Chrono =
Time and Logic = Order.
Stories are told
chronologically or in
order of time.
- A narrative or story is a journey through time,
and all of the events are arranged in order of time;
therefore, every story has a beginning, middle, and
end. Even if an author uses flashbacks, flash-
forwards, or otherwise manipulates the time in his
or her text, the events still occur along a timeline.
Stories require the passage of time; therefore, all
stories are organized chronologically.
- Sometimes time will stop in a
narrative. Certain passages in a
story may focus on describing
scenery or spaces, and use a
descriptive or spatial method of
organization. The conflict of a
story may be discussed in terms of
problem and solution or cause and
effect, but the text in a story is still
mainly organized chronologically.
Example of Paragraph in Chronological Order:
On Friday afternoon, February 3, 2019, at 2 p.m. in ABC Shipping Co.
located on 13th Avenue, Applewood, one of the warehouse workers (John
Keegan) slipped and fell while carrying heavy (85 lbs) inventory. The root
cause is believed to be the unavailability of a hand truck or pallet jack.
Instead of waiting, John attempted carrying the load himself. A second
possible cause is the condition of John’s PPE, specifically his boots,
which are very worn out in certain places.
When John fell, his colleagues rushed to his assistance. Suspecting
a fracture, the supervisor on the floor (Kathy Pickens) decided to call 911.
John said he felt a bit dizzy when he lost his balance and that he just
“tripped over his feet.” He tried to minimize damage to the load itself
while falling, which may have led to a more awkward fall.
Two of his co-workers said that they noticed he was struggling a bit
before the fall, but were busy with their own tasks and felt it would be
rude to call him out.
3. Compare and Contrast Structure
- Comparison deals with both similarities and differences;
while contrast only deals with the differences.
- Words/Expressions used to show comparison: similarly,
likewise, also, both... and..., not only... but also..., neither...
nor..., just like (+ noun), similar to (+ noun), to be similar
(to), to be the same as, to be alike, to compare (to/with)
- Examples:
1. Computers can be used to communicate easily, for example via
email. Similarly/Likewise, the mobile phone is a convenient tool
for communication.
2. Both computers and mobile phones can be used to communicate
easily with other people.
3. Just like the computer, the mobile phone can be used to
communicate easily with other people.
4. The computer is similar to the mobile phone in the way it can
be used for easy communication.
- Words/Expressions used to show contrast: However, in
contrast, in comparison, by comparison, on the other hand,
while, whereas, but, to differ from, to be different (from), to be
dissimilar to, to be unlike
- Examples:
1. Computers, although increasingly small, are not always easy to
carry from one place to another. However, the mobile phone can
be carried with ease.
2. Computers are generally not very portable, whereas the mobile
phone is.
3. Computers differ from mobile phones in their lack of portability.
4. Computers are unlike mobile phones in their lack of portability.
Criteria for Comparison and Contrast:
- When making comparisons or contrasts, it is important
to be clear what criteria you are using. Study the
following example, which contrasts two people. Here, the
first criteria are unclear.
NO: Aaron is tall and strong. In contrast, Bruce is handsome and very
intelligent.
YES: Aaron and Bruce differ in four ways. The first difference is
height. Aaron is tall, while Bruce is short. A second difference is
strength. Aaron is strong. In contrast, Bruce is weak. A third
difference is appearance. Aaron, who is average looking, differs
from Bruce, who is handsome. The final difference is intelligence.
Aaron is of average intelligence. Bruce, on the other hand, is very
intelligent.
4. Definition
- To define is to state or describe exactly the
nature, scope, or meaning of a term. A term
can be a word or a phrase.
- It is sometimes necessary to define one or
more of the terms used in academic writing, in
order to make the meaning clear, and also, in
some cases, to demonstrate understanding.
While definitions will generally be only a
sentence long, it is also possible to write an
extended definition which covers a
paragraph or even an entire essay.
On Definition Paragraphs:
- The starting point for a definition
paragraph is a simple definition
which becomes the topic
sentence of the paragraph.
- Support sentences give more
information through the use of
examples, description, or
explanation.
- Concluding sentences
sometimes become
unnecessary.
Transitional Words and Phrases
Used in a Definition Paragraph:
For giving examples: for example, for instance, an
illustration of this, another example
For providing a description: in the foreground, in
the middle distance, in the background, in the far
distance, next to, near, up, down, between, above,
below, on top of, beneath, left, right, centre, front,
How to structure a definition essay/paragraph:
There are many ways to organise a definition essay. Some of these use
structures covered on other pages, e.g. comparison, contrast and
classification. Each of the following might form a single paragraph in the
main body:
1. Etymology. The etymology (the origin of the word) is a common way
to begin an extended definition. In addition to giving the origin, it can be
helpful to show how the meaning or usage has changed over time.
2. Exemplification. Giving examples is a common way to extend the
definition of a word.
3. Comparison. If the word being defined is complex, it can be
compared to something which is simpler (by giving an analogy).
4. Contrast. The word can be contrasted with others in the same
category which are close in meaning.
5. Classification. If the word being defined can be divided into
different types, classification can be used to extend the definition.
6. Sequence/Process. If the word being defined is a process, or
is used to carry out a process, then the definition can be extended
by explaining the process.
7. Negation. It is sometimes helpful to extend the definition of the
word by explaining what it is not, in order to explain what it is.
8. Description. If the word being defined is something physical,
then a description of its characteristics, possibly including a
diagram, might be appropriate.
9. Enumeration. If the word being defined has many
characteristics, then it might be helpful to enumerate (i.e. list) each
of these characteristics in detail.8
Example of a Definition Paragraph:
What is cholera? Cholera is an intestinal infection that can be
described according to its cause, symptoms, and treatment. It is caused by
a bacterium, called Vibrio cholera. Contaminated food, water, or faeces can
result in the rapid spread of this disease. Patients who have been exposed
to the disease may exhibit mild to extreme symptoms. The primary signs
are watery diarrhoea and loss of water and salts. Other symptoms include
clammy skin, wrinkled hands and feet, sunken eyes and a dry mouth. If the
severe diarrhoea is not treated, it can be life-threatening because of
dehydration and electrolyte imbalances. Possible treatments for cholera
can include oral or intravenous replacement of fluids and salts as well as
certain antibiotics. Prompt and appropriate treatment appears to
5. Description
- A description paragraph is
required when you are asked
to write about how somebody
or something looks, sounds,
smells, tastes or feels. You
should provide specific details
of the most important features
and use appropriate
adjectives to describe
attributes and qualities.
- Descriptive text is a
text which says what a
person or a thing is
like. Its purpose is to
describe and reveal a
particular person,
place, or thing.
On Descriptive Paragraphs:
- Topic sentence on a descriptive
paragraph identifies the
phenomenon to be described.
- Support sentences give an organized
description of its parts, functions,
and characteristics.
- Ways of arranging the details
include the following:
1. from left to right,
2. from most important to least
important,
3. from main characteristics to minor
details.
Sample Paragraph Using Description:
The lemur has a moist nose and a cleft
upper lip. It has a striking fox-like muzzle
and a good sense of smell. Most lemurs
have nails on the fingers and toes, except
for the second toe, which bears a claw. This
is called the ‘toilet claw,’ because it is used
in grooming. Lemurs also groom their fur
with the tongue and the lower front teeth,
which slant outward almost horizontally.
Generally speaking, lemurs and their
relatives are small mammals with thick or
woolly hair and large eyes. Some have long
bushy tails; others, rat-like tails; a few, only
a stub.
6. Problem-Solution

Structure
- Problem-solution text structures
consider the problems of a particular
situation, and give solutions to those
problems. They are in some ways
similar to cause and effect essays,
especially in terms of structure.
- Problem-solution essays can have the
following four components: Situation,
Problem, Solution, and Evaluation
(SPSE essay).
Example of a Problem-Solution
Essay:
(1) Consumption of processed and convenience
foods and our dependence on the car have
led to an increase in obesity and reduction
in the fitness level of the adult population.
In some countries, especially industrialized
ones, the number of obese people can
amount to one third of the population. This
is significant as obesity and poor fitness lead
to a decrease in life expectancy, and it is
therefore important for individuals and
governments to work together to tackle this
issue and improve their citizens' diet and
fitness. (Situation)
 (2) Obesity and poor fitness decrease
life expectancy. Overweight people are
more likely to have serious illnesses such
as diabetes and heart disease, which can
result in premature death. It is well
known that regular exercise can reduce
the risk of heart disease and stroke,
which means that those with poor fitness
levels are at an increased risk of
suffering from those problems.
(Problem)
 (3) Changes by individuals to their diet and their
physical activity can increase life expectancy. There is
a reliance today on the consumption of processed
foods, which have a high fat and sugar content. By
preparing their own foods, and consuming more fruit
and vegetables, people could ensure that their diets
are healthier and more balanced, which could lead to
a reduction in obesity levels. In order to improve
fitness levels, people could choose to walk or cycle to
work or to the shops rather than taking the car. They
could also choose to walk up stairs instead of taking
the lift. These simple changes could lead to a
significant improvement in fitness levels. (Solution 1)
 (4) Governments could also implement
initiatives to improve their citizens' eating
and exercise habits. This could be done
through education, for example by adding
classes to the curriculum about healthy diet
and lifestyles. Governments could also do
more to encourage their citizens to walk or
cycle instead of taking the car, for instance by
building more cycle lanes or increasing
vehicle taxes. While some might argue that
increased taxes are a negative way to solve the
problem, it is no different from the high taxes
imposed on cigarettes to reduce cigarette
consumption. (Solution 2)
 (5) In short, obesity and poor fitness
are a significant problem in modern life,
leading to lower life expectancy. Individuals
and governments can work together to
tackle this problem and so improve diet and
fitness. Of the solutions suggested, those
made by individuals themselves are likely to
have more impact, though it is clear that a
concerted effort with the government is
essential for success. With obesity levels in
industrialized and industrializing countries
continuing to rise, it is essential that we take
action now to deal with this problem.
(Evaluation)
7. SEQUENTIAL ORDER
/ PROCESS ESSAY
- Sequential order usually
refers to steps in a process or
event. This pattern works well
when using step-by-step
directions. Owner’s manuals
and cookbooks use this
pattern. Sequential order may
show how to do something.
Online Activities to Help
Teach Sequential Order:

1.Making a Pizza
2.Delivering a Speech
3.Activating a SIM/ATM
card
4.Printing a shirt
5.Writing a research
report
WORDS AND PHRASES (TRANSITIONS)
THAT SHOW SEQUENCE:
- After, afterward, again, as long as, at length, at that time, at the same
time, at this point, at this time, before, before this, beyond, behind, by,
besides, concurrently, consequently, earlier, eventually, finally, first
(second, third, etc.), following this, formerly, further, furthermore,
hence, here, immediately, initially, in addition, in the beginning, in the
first place, in the meantime, in the past, in the same instant, in time,
last, lastly, later, meanwhile, moreover, near, next, now, opposite, on
the opposite side, on the right, on the left, now, presently, previously,
shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still, subsequently, then,
thereafter, therefore, thus, then, today, to begin, too, until, until now,
EXAMPLE OF A PARAGRAPH USING SEQUENTIAL
ORDER:
Looking for an easy egg sandwich recipe? Make this
healthy egg sandwich recipe for breakfast and enjoy!
To prepare this easy recipe, take a deep-bottomed pan and
add enough water to it along with eggs. Let the eggs boil for
10 minutes. After the eggs boil, drain water and let the eggs
cool a little before you start peeling and chopping the eggs.
Take a bowl and add egg, mayonnaise, salt, mustard paste
to the bowl and mix thoroughly. Stir in pepper to the mixture.
Toast the bread slices. Then, take a bread slice, spread
butter on it and add the egg mixture on the bread. Cover it up
with the other bread slices. Serve!
A. CONCEPT FAMILIARIZATION: Identify which text structure is
being defined, described, or illustrated in each statement. Write
your answer in the blank located beside the item number. (10
points)
B. READING the TEXT: Choose three (3) texts, preferably the most related
to your track, from the selected examples in the lesson discussion in the
module. Read them very carefully.
1. List down the signal words/transitions used in the text that show its
structure.
2. Explain briefly how these words help you understand the text.
3. Write a short paragraph that explains your understanding of the text.
 C. REFLECTION
- From your lesson this week, reflect on your learning
experience using the following guide questions.
1. What new information did I learn from the lesson?
2. How can this information help me to be a better reader?
3. Where can I apply what I learned from the lesson?