Session contents • Moving average models • Autoregressive models • ARIMA • White noise • Stationarity • Box Jenkins methodology When ARIMA is to be used In many real world situations • We do not know the variables determinants of the variable to be forecast • Or the data on these casual variables are not readily available Box-Jenkins methodology is • Technically sophisticated way of forecasting a variable by looking only at the past pattern of the time series • It uses most recent observations as a starting value • Best suited for long range rather than short range forecasting. White noise • White noise is a purely random series of numbers • The numbers are normally and independently distributed • There is no relationship between consecutively observed values • Previous values do not help in predicting future values Box-Jenkins methodology (continued)
• We start with the observed time series itself
• Examine its characteristics • Get an idea how to transform the series into white noise. • If we get the white noise, we assume that it is the correct model Basic models • Moving average (MA) models
• Autoregressive (AR) models
• Mixed autoregressive moving average (ARMA)
models Moving average models • Predicts Yt as a functions of the past errors
• Yt = et + W1 et-1 + W2 et-2 +…..Wq et-q
• MA (1) series……………..Yt = et + W1 et-1
To know the order • Autocorrelation—correlation between the values of the time series at different periods
• Partial autocorrelation – measures the degree
of association between the variable and that same variable in another time period after partialing out the effect of the other lags • If the ACF abruptly stops at some point, we know the model is of MA type • The number of spikes before the abrupt stop is referred to as q Autoregressive models • Dependent variable Yt depends on its own previous values rather than white noise or residuals • Yt = A1 Yt-1 + A2 Yt-2 +……+ApYt-p +et
• Yt = A1 Yt-1 +et…………AR (1) model
• Yt = A1 Yt-1 + A2 Yt-2 +et…………AR (2) model
• If the PACF stops abruptly at some point , the model is of AR type • The number of spikes before the abrupt stop is equal to the order of the AR model. • It is denoted by p • Yt = A1 Yt-1 + A2 Yt-2 +……+ApYt-p +et + W1 et-1 + W2 et-2 +…..Wq et-q
• Order = ARMA (p,q)
• Any of the four frames could be patterns that could identify ARIMA (1,1) model
• Both ACF and PACF gradually fall to zero rather
than abruptly stop. Stationarity • Two consecutive values in the series depend only on the time interval between them and not on time itself What is a Stationary Time Series? • A stationary process or series has the following properties: - constant mean - constant variance - constant autocovariance structure • The latter refers to the covariance between y(t-1) and y(t-2) being the same as y(t-5) and y(t-6). Non stationary data • Mean value of the time series changes over time • Variance of the time series changes over time • Autocorrelations are usually significantly different from zero at first and then gradually fall to zero or show spurious pattern as the lags are increased How to remove non stationarity • If caused by trend in series, differencing of the series is done • When there is change in variability, log of actual series • When differencing is used to make a time series stationary, it is common to refer the resulting model as ARIMA (p,d,q) type. • The “I” refers to integrated or differencing term • d refers to the degree of differencing Step I----Identify • If the ACF abruptly stops at some point- say, after q spikes-then the appropriate model is an MA(q) type. • If the PACF abruptly stops at some point-say, after p spikes-then the model is an AR(p) type • If neither function falls off abruptly, but both decline toward zero in some fashion, the appropriate model is an ARMA (p,q) type Step II-----Estimation
• Similar to fitting a standard regression
Step III-----Diagnose
• Determine whether the correct model has
been chosen • Examine the ACF of residuals • If the ACF of the residuals shows no spikes the model chosen is the correct one • If you are left with only white noise in the residual series , the model chosen is likely to be the correct one Ljung-Box statistic test • Tests whether the residual autocorrelations as a set are significantly different from zero. • If the residual autocorrelations as a set are significantly different from zero, the model specification should be reformulated. Step IV------Forecast