30.

8 Cutting
In addition to being cut by mechanical means, as described in Part IV of this
book, material can be cut into various contours by using a heat source, that
melts and removes a narrow zone in the workpiece. The sources of heat can be
torches, electric arcs, or lasers.
Oxyfuel-gas Cutting.
Oxyfuel-gas cutting (OFC) is similar to oxyfuel-gas welding, but the heat source
is now used to remove a narrow zone from a metal plate or sheet (Fig. 30.18a).
This process is particularly suitable for steels, where the basic reactions are:

𝐹𝑒 +𝑂 → 𝐹𝑒𝑂 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 , ( 30 . 6 ) 
3 𝐹𝑒 +2𝑂 2 → 𝐹 𝑒3 𝑂 4 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 , ( 30 .7 ) 
¿  

The greatest heat is generated by the second reaction, with temperatures

rising to about 870°C. However, because this temperature is not sufficiently
high, the workpiece is preheated with fuel gas, and oxygen is introduced Fig. 30.18 (a) Flame cutting of a steel plate
later, as can be seen from the nozzle cross-section in Fig. 30.18a. with an oxyacetylene torch, and a cross-
section of the torch nozzle.
30.8 Cutting
The higher the carbon content of the steel, the higher is the preheating
temperature required. Cutting takes place mainly by the oxidation (burning) of
the steel; some melting also takes place.
Cast irons and steel castings also can be cut by this method. The process
generates a kerf, similar to that produced in sawing with a saw blade or by wire
electrical- discharge machining. Kerf widths range from about 1.5 to 10 mm,
with good control of dimensional tolerances. However, distortion caused by
uneven temperature distribution can be a problem in OFC.

The maximum thickness of cutting in OFC depends mainly on the gases used.
With oxyacetylene gas, for example, the maximum thickness is about 300
mm; with oxyhydrogen, it is about 600 mm.
The flame leaves drag lines on the cut surface (Fig. 30.18b), resulting in a
rougher surface than that produced by sawing, blanking, or other similar
operations that use mechanical cutting tools.
Fig. 30.18 (b) Cross-section of a flame-cut
plate, showing drag lines.
30.8 Cutting
In oxy-fuel welding, a welding torch is used to weld metals. Welding metal results when two pieces are heated to a
temperature that produces a shared pool of molten metal. The molten pool is generally supplied with additional metal
called filler. Filler material selection depends upon the metals to be welded.
In oxy-fuel cutting, a torch is used to heat metal to its kindling
temperature. A stream of oxygen is then trained on the metal, burning
it into a metal oxide that flows out of the kerf as dross.
The apparatus used in gas welding consists basically of an oxygen
source and a fuel gas source (usually contained in cylinders), two
pressure regulators and two flexible hoses (one for each cylinder), and
a torch.
Underwater cutting is done with specially designed torches, that
produce a blanket of compressed air between the flame and the
surrounding water.
30.8 Cutting
Arc Cutting:
These processes are based on the same principles as arc-welding processes. A variety of materials can be cut at high
speeds by arc cutting, although as in welding, these processes also leave a heat-affected zone that needs to be taken into
account, particularly in critical applications.

In air carbon-arc cutting (CAC-A) is an arc cutting process in which

metals to be cut are melted by the heat of a carbon arc. In this
process, a carbon electrode is used and the molten metal is blown
away by a high-velocity air jet. This process is used especially for
gouging and scarfing (removal of metal from a surface). However, the
process is noisy, and the molten metal can be blown substantial
distances and cause safety hazards.
The process requires equipment includes an air compressor,
welding power source, carbon electrode and a gouging torch.
A variety of materials can be cut at high speeds by arc cutting, although as in welding, these processes also leave a heat-
affected zone that needs to be taken into account, particularly in critical applications.
30.8 Cutting
Arc Cutting:
In air carbon arc cutting, also referred to as metal arc gouging,
and previously as air arc cutting, is then removed by a blast of
air. It employs a consumable carbon or graphite electrode to
melt the material, which is then blown away by an air jet.
The molten metal is removed by a high velocity blast of
compressed air.

The air jet is external to the consumable carbon-graphite electrode. It strikes

the molten metal immediately behind the arc.
Air carbon arc cutting and metal removal differ from plasma arc cutting in
that they employ an open (unconstricted) arc, which is independent of the gas
jet.
The process is more flexible than oxyfuel processes since it does not require
oxidation in order to cut. The most common metals cut with the process
includes cast irons, copper alloys and stainless steel. The process is widely
used for preparing joints and removing defective weld metal.
30.8 Cutting
Arc Cutting:
Plasma-arc cutting (PAC) produces the highest temperatures, and is used for the
rapid cutting of nonferrous and stainless-steel plates. The cutting productivity of
this process is higher than that of oxyfuel-gas methods. PAC produces a good
surface finish and narrow kerfs, and is the most common cutting process utilizing
programmable controllers employed in manufacturing today.

Plasma Arc Cutting uses a high temperature stream of ionised gas through a
water-cooled nozzle at very high velocity. An arc is formed between the electrode
and the workpiece, which is constricted by a fine bore copper nozzle. Oxygen
oxidizes the workpiece material, and it is melted by the exothermic reaction. The
melted metal is then blown away from the line of cut. Temperatures can reach up to
20,000˚C.

Manual (portable) or automated systems are common.

The plasma gases include argon, hydrogen, nitrogen and mixtures, plus air and oxygen.
PAC has a higher cutting speed and produces a smaller HAZ than oxy-fuel cutting
30.9 The Weld Joint, Weld Quality, and Testing
Three distinct zones can be identified in a typical weld joint, as
shown in Fig. 30.19: 1. Base metal, 2. Heat-affected zone, 3. Weld
metal.
The metallurgy and properties of the second and third zones depend
strongly on the type of metals joined, the particular joining process,
the filler metals used (if any), and welding process variables.
Recall that a joint produced without using a filler metal is called
autogenous, and its weld zone is composed of the resolidified base
metal. A joint made with a filler metal has a central zone, called the
weld metal, and is composed of a mixture of the base and the filler
metals.
Solidification of the Weld Metal. After the application of heat and the introduction of the filler metal (if any) into the
weld zone, the weld joint is allowed to cool to ambient temperature. The solidification process is similar to that in casting
and begins with the formation of columnar (dendritic) grains. These grains are relatively long and they form parallel to
the heat flow. Because metals are much better heat conductors than the surrounding air, the grains lie parallel to the plane
of the two components being welded (Fig. 30.20a). In contrast, the grains in a shallow weld are as shown in Figs. 30.20b
and c.
Solidification of the Weld Metal.
Grain structure and grain size depend on the specific metal
alloy, the particular welding process employed, and the type
of filler metal. Because it began in a molten state, the weld
metal basically has a cast structure, and since it has cooled
slowly, it has coarse grains. Consequently, this structure
generally has low strength, toughness, and ductility.
However, with proper selection of filler - metal composition
or of heat treatments, following welding, the mechanical
properties of the joint can be improved. Fig. 30.20. Grain structure in (a) a deep weld and (b) a
shallow weld; note that the grains in the solidified weld
The resulting structure depends on the particular alloy, its
metal are perpendicular to their interface with the base
composition, and the thermal cycling to which the joint is metal, (c) Weld bead on a cold-rolled nickel strip produced
subjected. For example, cooling rates may be controlled and by a laser beam, (d) Microhardness (HV) profile across a
weld bead.
reduced by preheating the general weld area prior to welding.

Preheating is important, particularly for metals having high thermal conductivity, such as aluminum and copper (Table
3.2). Without preheating, the heat produced during welding dissipates rapidly through the rest of the parts being joined.
Heat-affected Zone.
The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is within the base metal itself. It has a
microstructure different from that of the base metal prior to its welding,
because it has been temporarily subjected to elevated temperatures during
welding. The portions of the base metal that are far away from the heat
source do not undergo microstructural changes during welding, because
of the far lower temperature to which they are subjected.
The properties and microstructure of the HAZ depend on (a) the rate of
heat input and cooling and (b) the temperature to which this zone was
raised.
In addition to metallurgical factors (such as the original grain size, grain orientation, and degree of prior cold work),
physical properties (such as the specific heat and thermal conductivity of the metals) also influence the size and
characteristics of the HAZ.
The strength and hardness of the HAZ depend partly on how the original strength and hardness of the base metal was
developed prior to welding. They may have been developed by (a) cold working, (b) solid-solution strengthening, (c)
precipitation hardening, or (d) various heat treatments. The effects of these strengthening methods are complex; the
simplest to analyze are those in a base metal that has been cold worked, such as by cold rolling or cold forging.
Heat-affected Zone.
 The heat applied during welding recrystallizes the elongated grains of the cold- worked base metal.
 On the one hand, grains that are away from the weld metal will recrystallize into fine, equiaxed grains;
 Grains close to the weld metal have been subjected to elevated temperatures for a longer time. Consequently, the grains
will grow in size, and this region will be softer and have lower strength; such a joint will be weakest at its HAZ.

Recrystallize heat affected zone

Microscopic Analysis of Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) of Submerged Arc Welding (saw) Joint for 1018 Mild Steel Sheet
Heat-affected Zone.

The heat affected zone further subdivided

into:
 Coarse grained (CGHAZ),
 Fine grained (FGHAZ),
 Inter-critical (ICHAZ), and
 Sub-critical (SCHAZ) zones.
Recrystallize heat affected zone

Microscopic Analysis of Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) of Submerged Arc Welding

(saw) Joint for 1018 Mild Steel Sheet.
30.9.1 Weld Quality
As a result of a history of thermal cycling and its attendant microstructural changes, a
welded joint may develop various discontinuities. Welding discontinuities also can be
caused by an inadequate or careless application of welding technologies or by poor
operator training.
The major discontinuities that affect weld quality are described below.
Porosity. is the presence of cavities in the weld metal caused by the freezing inheat
Recrystallize of gas
affected zone
released from the weld pool as it solidifies. Porosity in welds may be caused by:
 Gases released during melting of the weld area but trapped during solidification,
 Chemical reactions during welding,
 Contaminants.
Most welded joints contain some porosity, which is generally in the shape of spheres
or of elongated pockets.
The distribution of porosity in the weld zone may be random or the porosity may be
concentrated in a certain region in the zone.
30.9.1 Weld Quality
Porosity in welds can be reduced by the following practices:
 Proper selection of electrodes and filler metals,
 Improved welding techniques, such as preheating the weld area or increasing the rate of heat input,
 Proper cleaning and the prevention of contaminants from entering the weld zone,
 Reduced welding speeds, to allow time for gas to escape.

Slag Inclusions. are nonmetallic particles trapped in the weld-metal or at the weld interface and result from
faulty welding technique, improper access to the joint, or both. Such inclusions as oxides, fluxes, and electrode-coating
materials, that are trapped in the weld zone. With proper technique, slag inclusions rise to the surface of the molten weld-
metal. If shielding gases are not effective during welding, contamination from the environment also may contribute to such
inclusions.
Welding conditions also are important: with control of welding process
parameters, the molten slag will float to the surface of the molten weld
metal and thus will not become entrapped.
30.9.1 Weld Quality
Slag inclusions can be prevented by implementing the following
practices:
 Cleaning the weld-bead surface by means of a wire brush (hand or
power) or a chipper before the next layer is deposited,
 Providing sufficient shielding gas,
 Redesigning the joint to permit sufficient space for proper
manipulation of the puddle of molten weld metal.

Incomplete Fusion and Penetration. is a weld discontinuity in which fusion did not occur between weld metal and fusion
faces or adjoining weld beads. This absence of fusion may occur at any location within the weld joint and may be present
in fillet welds and/or groove welds. Incomplete fusion may be caused by the inability, during the welding process, to
elevate the base material or previously deposited weld metal to its melting temperature. It is often found on one leg of a
fillet weld and is caused by incorrect welding angle that allows for an imbalance of heat between both sides of the joint. It
may also be caused by failure to remove oxides or other foreign material from the surface of the base material to which the
deposited weld metal must fuse.
30.9.1 Weld Quality

Incomplete Fusion produces poor weld beads, such as those shown in Fig. 30.21.
A better weld can be obtained by implementing the following practices:
 Raising the temperature of the base metal,
 Cleaning the weld area prior to welding,
 Modifying the joint design and changing the type of electrode, used
 Providing sufficient shielding gas.

Figure 30.21. Examples of various discontinuities in fusion welds.

30.9.1 Weld Quality

Incomplete penetration is described as a joint root condition in a groove weld in which weld metal does not extend
through the joint thickness. It is the failure of filler metal or base metal to completely fill the root of the weld. Some
common causes of incomplete joint penetration are related to groove weld design or set up not suitable for the welding
conditions. These problems develop in situations where the root face dimensions are too large, the root opening is too
small, or the included angle of a v-groove weld is too narrow. All of these joint design characteristics restrict the ability of
the weld to penetrate through the joint thickness. To help prevent this discontinuity, care should be taken to ensure the use
of correct joint design and joint fit-up in accordance with welding procedure requirements.

Penetration can be improved by the following practices:

 Reduced welding speeds, to allow time for gas to escape,
 Increasing the heat input,
 Modifying the joint design,
 Ensuring that the surfaces to be joined fit each other properly.
30.9.1 Weld Quality
Weld Profile is important not only because of its effects on the strength and appearance of the weld, but also
because it can indicate incomplete fusion or the presence of slag inclusions in multiple-layer welds.
 Underfilling results when the joint is not filled with the proper amount of weld metal (Fig. 30.22a).
30.9.1 Weld Quality

 Undercutting results from the melting away of the base metal and
the subsequent generation of a groove in the shape of a sharp recess
or notch (Fig. 30.22b). If it is deep or sharp, an undercut can act as a
stress raiser and thus reduce the fatigue strength of the joint, and lead
to premature failure.

 Overlap is a surface discontinuity (Fig. 30.22b), usually caused by poor welding practice or by selection of
improper materials.
Figure 30.22c shows a weld that would be considered to be good.
Crack. is a discontinuity caused by the tearing of the metal while in a plastic condition or fracturing of the metal when
cold. Crack occurs because the stress at that point in the world metal exceeds the ultimate tensile strength or shear strength
of the basement or weld metal.
Cracks may occur in various locations and directions in the weld area. Typical types of cracks are longitudinal,
transverse, crater, underbead, and toe cracks.

Figure 30.23. Types of cracks developed in welded joints; the cracks are caused by thermal stresses, similar to the
development of hot tears in castings.
Cracks in welding

Cracks generally result from a combination of the following factors:

 Temperature gradients causing thermal stresses in the weld zone,
 Variations in the composition of the weld zone causing different rates of
contraction during cooling,
 Embrittlement of grain boundaries, caused by the segregation of such elements
as sulfur to the grain boundaries, and occurring when the solid-liquid boundary
moves as the weld metal begins to solidify,
 Hydrogen embrittlement,
 Inability of the weld metal to contract during cooling (Fig. 30.24), a situation
similar to hot tears that develop in castings, and is related to excessive restraint
of the workpiece during the welding operation.

Cracks also are classified as hot cracks (which occur while the joint is still at
.Figure 30.24. Crack in a weld bead
elevated temperatures) and cold cracks (which develop after the weld metal has
solidified).
Cracks in welding
Crater cracking occurs when the welding operator stops welding prior to
finishing a pass on a weld joint, leaving a wide, thin depression at the end.
Creator Crack is generally in the shape of an “X” which is found in a crater.
Crater cracks or hot cracks.
Cause: the center of the world pool becomes solid before the outside of the
welding pool, pulling the center at Park during Cooling.
To prevent this type of crack use: creator feel, if the crater at real termination,
preheat to even out the cooling off the puddle.

Longitudinal cracks run along the length of a weld bead.

There are three types: check cracks, root cracks, and full centreline cracks.
Check cracks are visible from the surface and extend partially into weld. They are
usually caused by high shrinkage stresses, especially on final passes, or by a hot
cracking mechanism. Root cracks start at the root and extent part way into the weld.
They are the most common type of longitudinal crack because of the small size of
the first weld bead. Full crack extends from the root to the surface.
A root crack is the crack formed by the short bead at the root (of edge Hydrogen cracks originating in the
preparation) beginning of the welding, low current at the beginning and HAZ and weld metal.
due to improper filler material used for welding. Major reason for
happening of these types of cracks is hydrogen embrittlement. These types
of defects can be eliminated using high current at the starting and proper
filler material.
Toe crack occurs due to moisture content present in the welded area, it as a
part of the surface crack so can be easily detected. Preheating and proper
joint formation is must for eliminating these types of defects.

Hydrogen cracking also known as cold cracking occurs in ferritic weldable steels, and generally occurs immediately on
welding or after a short time after welding, but usually within 48hrs. The mechanism starts with lone hydrogen atoms
diffusing through the metal; At high temperatures, the elevated solubility of hydrogen allows hydrogen to diffuse into the
metal (or the hydrogen can diffuse in at a low temperature, assisted by a concentration gradient). When these hydrogen
atoms re-combine in minuscule voids of the metal matrix to form hydrogen molecules, they create pressure from inside the
cavity they are in. This pressure can increase to levels where the metal has reduced ductility and tensile strength up to the
point where it cracks open (hydrogen induced cracking, or HIC). High-strength and low-alloy steels, nickel and titanium
alloys are most susceptible. Austempered iron is also susceptible.
Hydrogen cracking. On breaking open the weld, the surface of the cracks will normally not be oxidized, even if they are
surface breaking, indicating they were formed when the weld was at or near ambient temperature. A slight blue tinge
may be seen from the effects of preheating or welding heat.

There are three factors, which can cause hydrogen cracking:

 Hydrogen generated by the welding process, or by
contamination of the weld area.
 A hard brittle structure, which is susceptible to cracking.
 Residual tensile stresses acting on the welded joint
(restraint).

Cracking is caused by the diffusion of hydrogen to the highly stressed, hardened part of the weldment.
In C-Mn steels, because there is a greater risk of forming a brittle microstructure in the HAZ, most of the hydrogen
cracks are likely to be found in the parent metal. Using the correct choice of electrodes, the weld metal will have a lower
carbon content than the parent metal and, hence, by a lower carbon equivalent (CE) cracking may be found in the weld
bead.
Transverse cracking, also called cross cracking, is characterized as a crack within the weld metal perpendicular to the
direction of travel. This is the least frequently encountered type of cracking and is generally associated with weld metal
that is higher in strength, significantly overmatching the base material. This type of cracking can also be hydrogen
assisted, and like the heat affected zone cracking, transverse cracking is also a factor of excessive hydrogen, residual stress
and a sensitive microstructure. The primary difference is that the transverse cracking occurs in the weld metal as a result of
  .the longitudinal residual stress
As the weld bead shrinks longitudinally, the surrounding base
material resists this force by going into compression. The high
strength of the surrounding steel is in compression restricting
the shrinkage of the weld material. Due to the restraint of
surrounding base metal, the weld metal develops longitudinal
stresses which may facilitate cracking in the transverse
.direction
,Preventing transverse cracking
When transverse cracking is encountered, a review of the low hydrogen practice is warranted. Electrode storage
conditions should be carefully reviewed. If this is a problem, a reduction in the strength of the weld metal will usually
solve transverse cracking problems. Of course, design requirements must still be met, although most transverse cracking
.results from weld metal over matching conditions
Emphasis is placed upon the weld metal because the filler metal may deposit lower strength, highly ductile metal under
normal conditions. However, with the influence of alloy pick-up, it is possible for the weld metal to exhibit extremely high
strengths with reduced ductility. Using lower strength weld metal is an effective solution, but caution should be taken to
.ensure that the required joint strength is attained

Preheat may have to be applied to alleviate transverse cracking. The preheat will assist in diffusing hydrogen. As preheat
is applied, it will additionally expand the length of the weld joint, allowing the weld metal and the joint to contract
simultaneously, and reducing the applied stress to the shrinking weld. This is particularly important when making
circumferential welds. When the circumference of the materials being welded is expanded, the weld metal is free to
contract along with the surrounding base material, reducing the longitudinal shrinkage stress. Finally, post weld hydrogen
release treatments that involve holding the steel at 120-230oC for extended periods of time (generally 1h per inches of
.thickness) will assist in diffusing any residual hydrogen
Heat affected zone cracking is characterized by separation that occurs immediately adjacent to the weld bead.
Although it is related to the welding process, the crack occurs in the base metal, not in the weld material. This
type of cracking is also known as “underbead cracking”, “toe cracking”, or “delayed cracking”. Because this
cracking occurs after the steel has cooled below approximately 200oC, it can be called “cold cracking”, and because
.”it is associated with hydrogen, it is also called “hydrogen assisted cracking
In order for heat affected zone cracking to occur, three conditions must be present simultaneously: there must be
,a sufficient level of hydrogen
a sufficiently sensitive material involved, and
.a sufficiently high level of residual or applied stress
Adequate reduction or elimination of one of the three variables will
generally eliminate heat affected zone cracking. In welding
applications, the typical approach is to limit two of the three variables,
.namely the level of hydrogen and the sensitivity of the material
Heat affected zone cracking
Hydrogen can enter into a weld pool from a variety of sources. Moisture and organic compounds are the primary source
of hydrogen. It may be present on the steel, the electrode, in the shielding materials, and is present in the atmosphere.
Flux ingredients, whether on the outside of electrodes, inside the core of electrodes, or in the form of submerged arc or
.electroslag fluxes, can absorb moisture, depending on storage conditions and handling practices
To limit hydrogen content in deposited welds, welding consumables must be properly maintained, and welding must be
.performed on surfaces that are clean and dry

The second necessary condition for HAZ cracking is a sensitive

microstructure. The area of interest is the HAZ that results from
the thermal cycle experienced by the region immediately
surrounding the weld nugget. As this area is heated by the
welding arc during the creation of the weld pool, it is
transformed from its room temperature structure of ferrite to the
elevated temperature structure of austenite. The subsequent
.cooling rate will determine the resultant HAZ properties
Coarse grained (CGHAZ), Fine grained (FGHAZ),
Inter-critical (ICHAZ), Sub-critical (SCHAZ) zones.
Heat affected zone cracking
Conditions that encourage the development of crack sensitive microstructures include high cooling rates and higher
.hardenability levels in the steel
High cooling rates are encouraged by lower heat input welding procedures, greater base metal thickness, and cooler
.base metal temperatures
.Higher hardenability levels result from greater carbon contents and/or alloy levels

:To prevent HAZ cracking

For a given steel, the most effective way to reduce the cooling rate is by raising the temperature of the surrounding steel
through preheat. This reduces the temperature gradient, slowing cooling rates, and limiting the formation of sensitive
microstructures. Effective preheat is the primary means by which acceptable HAZ properties are created, although heat
.input has a significant effect on cooling rates in this zone
The residual stresses of welding can be reduced through thermal stress relief, although for most structural applications,
.this is economically impractical
For practical applications, heat affected zone cracking will be controlled by effective low hydrogen practices, and
.appropriate preheats
Heat affected zone cracking
For HAZ hydrogen cracking to occur, it is necessary for the hydrogen to migrate into the HAZ, which takes time. For
this reason, the D1.1 code (D1.1-96) requires a delay of 48hours after completion of welds for the inspection of welds
.made on A514, A517 and A709 Gr. 100 and 100W steels, known to be sensitive to hydrogen assisted HAZ cracking

With time, hydrogen diffuses from weld deposits. Sufficient diffusion to avoid cracking normally takes place in a few
weeks, although it may takes many months depending on the specific application. The concentrations of hydrogen near the
time of welding are always the greatest, and if hydrogen induced cracking to occur, it will generally occur within a few
.days of fabrication. However, it may take longer for cracks to grow to sufficient size to be detected

Although a function of many variables, general diffusion rates can be approximated. At 230oC, hydrogen diffuses at a rate
of approximately 1 in. per hour. At 105oC, hydrogen diffuses the same 1 in. in approximately 48 hours. At room
temperature, typical diffusible hydrogen rate is 1 in. per 2 weeks. If there is a question regarding the level of hydrogen in
weldment, it is possible to apply heat treatment commonly called “post heat”. This generally involves the heating of the
weld to a temperature of 205─230oC, holding the steel at that temperature for approximately one hour for each inch of
.thickness of material involved
Heat affected zone cracking
At that temperature, the hydrogen is likely to be redistributed through diffusion to preclude further risk of cracking.
Some materials, however, will require significantly longer than 1 hour per inch. This operation may not be necessary
where hydrogen has been properly controlled, and it is not as powerful as preheat in terms of its ability to prevent
underbead cracking. In order for post heat operations to be effective, they must be applied before the weldment is allowed
to cool to room temperature. Failure to do so could result in HAZ cracking prior to the application of the post heat
.treatment