RESEARCH TYPES

Scientific research is a systematic endeavor designed to achieve

knowledge appropriate for the purpose of science. We can classify the
research according to their purpose or manner of construction as
follows .

Observational / Experimental
In observational studies, individuals (participants) do not undergo a
procedure or intervention. In such studies, only the individual
characteristics of the observation result are recorded In experimental
studies, some or all of the individuals undergo an intervention
(treatment,…) and the changes that occur in individuals before and
after the intervention are recorded. 

Descriptive / Analytical
Datas are tried to be collected, in order to identify individuals in
descriptive researches and to determine cause - effect relationships in
analytical researches.
Descriptive / Analytical
•Datas are tried to be collected, in order to identify individuals in descriptive
researches and to determine cause - effect relationships in analytical
researches. In descriptive research, answers to questions of ”who“, “where“
and ”when” are sought. In analytical research answers to the question ”why“
is sought. Hypotheses are established based on data obtained from
descriptive research. Testing of these hypotheses and investigating whether
there is a relationship between the suspected etiological cause and the
disease is performed through analytical research.
Retrospective / Prospective
•The data examined in the retrospective studies is about the period before
the start of the study. Comparing historical information of healthy people with
diseased people, the causes of disease are investigated. Here, the content
and quality of patient files kept in the clinic is very important.
•In prospective studies, individuals are followed up prospectively and the
changes resulting from such follow-up are recorded.
Types of research used frequently in the field of health
as follows:
1. Case Series
It is a descriptive research
-The answers to the questions Who? -What? -
Where? -When? are sought.
Simple descriptive statistics of the examined patient group are
obtained. (Arithmetic mean, age and gender distribution by
frequency etc.)
For example, series of AIDS patients are case series. It
includes features such as where they live, in which age group
they are,… It provides information for the establishment of
hypotheses.
It leads to other studies investigating cause-effect
relationships.
2. Cross-Sectional Studies

It is a descriptive research

In this type of research, the population is examined in a very

short time by survey or general screening method. So a
photograph of the society is taken. After collecting the necessary
data, cause-effect relationships are investigated. The prevalence
values of the diseases are obtained.(Prevalence: The incidence
of a particular feature in the population). This type of research is
also called prevalence research.
If the planning is done well, the cause-effect relationship and the
factors that can cause the disease can be revealed.
 3. Cohort Studies
Question : What will be in the future?
Disease, Event
Yes (a)
Exposed to
the factor
(a+b)
No (b)
COHORT
(A+B+C+D)
Yes (c)
Exposed to the
factor
(c+d)
No (d)
They are prospective, analytical researches. A single group
(homogenous) to be investigated for future is divided into two
groups that exposed and don’t expose to the factor (cause or
disease). There is a natural factor. It is examined whether the
disease occurs after monitoring for a while.

Kohort Tipi Araştırmalarda Risk Ölçütleri

Hastalık insidansı; incelenen süre içerisinde ortaya çıkan yeni
olguların sıklığını gösterir.
 
İzleme periyodunda ortaya çıkan olgular
I = 
Risk altındaki nüfus (izlenen hasta sayısı)
 
4. Case-Control Studies

Question: What happened in the past?

Exposed
(a)
Cases
(a+c)
Not exposed
(c)

Exposed
(b) Controls
(b+d)
Not exposed
(d)
time
Beginning of the study
It is tried to find out what causes the disease. Both
groups were asked what happened in the past. The
frequency of causative factors is investigated. It is a
retrospective study.

Hospital records are used. The cost of this type of

research is low. It is used to investigate cause-effect
relationships of rare diseases.
It is an observational study because there is no
intervention in the research. It is an analytical research.
5. Parallel-Controlled Clinical Study
It is the type of study in which the
success of a new drug or type of surgery
is measured. The study should be
random. Patients are divided into 2
groups according to the study criteria.
The groups should be formed
coincidentally. In this case, patients who
meet the criteria of inclusion will be equal
to each other. After determining the new
method or group of treatment to be
applied as the experimental group, the
desired effect is applied and the results
are obtained.
 Parallel-Controlled Clinical Study

Result (+)
Experimental
individuals
Result (-)
Patients
complying
with the
inclusion
criteria Result (+)

Controls

Result (-)
Beginning of the study

XXXX Time
Intervention
 6. Externally controlled clinical study
Result (+)

Individuals
Result (-)

Result (+)
Results of previous
studies
Result (-)
Beginning of the study

XXX Time
Intervention
Externally Controlled Clinical Study
In the absence of a control group, the results of
other studies in the literature are used in
comparison.

7. Cross-Controlled Clinical Study

It is the study type in which each participant is in both the
experimental and control groups. It is the most effective
method of eliminating individual differences. However, it
is not always possible to use the same participant in both
the experimental and control groups. It also requires a
good identification of the transition period. Increasing the
number of patients is not necessary because the same
individuals are in both the control and the case group.
 Cross-Controlled Clinical Study
Result (+) Cases Result (+)
Cases

Result (-) Result (-)

Patients
complying
with the
inclusion
criteria

Result (+)
Controls Result (+)
Controls

Result (-) Result (-)

Beginning of the study
Transition period
XXX XXX Time
Intervention Intervention
 Error Sources in Experimental Research
1. Insufficient sample size, large sample error
2. Validity and consistency of measurements or observations,
3. Not suitable measurement devices,
4. Suitability of measurement devices for calibration,
5. Differences between observers,
6. Within-observer differences,
7. Errors when saving data,
8. Errors when encoding data,
9. Errors during data entry,
10. Not using appropriate statistics,
11. Errors due to hypothesis testing,
12. Errors in the interpretation of results.