Flow Measurement

Anil Markana
PDPU
 Overview
Flow can be measured in terms of
Quantity – how many liters of gas did I use and how
much will it cost me?
Rate – you must keep the water flowing at 10 gallons per
minute to fill up the pool by lunch time.

• Flow can be difficult to control and

measure accurately.
 Reasons for Control
• To ensure the correct proportions of raw
materials are combined during the
manufacturing process
• To ensure that ingredients are supplied at the
proper rate during the mixing and blending of
the materials
• To prevent a high flow rate than might cause
pressure or temperatures to become
dangerous, overspills to occur, or machines
to overspeed
 Methods to Measure Flow
Flow can be measured directly or indirectly using
one of the following methods.
– Headmeters
– Variable Area Flowmeters
– Volumetric/Displacement Flowmeters
– Mass Flowmeters
– Coriolis
– Velocity , Vortex Flowmeters
– Magnetic Flowmeters
– Ultrasonic
 Measuring flow directly
A volumetric flow measurement
can be as simple as filling and
emptying a container whose
volume is known and counting
the number of times it is done.

A rate measurement is preformed

by keeping track of the time
period.

Not a practical solution when a continuous measurement is

required or when measuring gases or vapours.
 Rate Measurements
Flow rate is also determined by measuring
the velocity of a fluid (liquid, gas or vapour)
passing a given area in a specific period of
time.
A=r2
if

V= Area = ft2
FT/sec
Q Q=A*V Velocity = ft/sec
Flow
then
Q = ft2 x ft/sec = ft3/sec
 Flow Units
When measuring the flow Quantity of fluids we can
use units of volume or mass:
• Liquid – gallons, barrels or liters
• Gas – cubic feet (ft3), cubic meters (m3)
• Vapour (steam) – lbs, kg
When measuring the flow Rate we use units of
volume or mass over time:
• Liquid – gallons per minute (gpm) or liters per min.
• Gas – cubic feet/hr (ft3/hr), cubic meters/hr (m3/hr)
• Vapour (steam) – lbs/hr, kg/hr
 Flow Factors
In order to obtain an accurate measurement
the following factors must be considered
when measuring flow.
• Temperature
• Density
• Pressure
• Viscosity
 Effects of Temperature
Temperature will cause Temp Volume
substances to expand Temp Volume
or contract.
• Gases are generally most affected; solids
and liquids are less affected.
• Volumetric flowmeters must be compensated
for temperature.
• Mass flowmeters are used in temperature
extremes.
Density is also affected by temperature

Density is mass per unit volume. (m/v)

At 50° F a pound of water has a volume of
15.37 ounces. However, at 150° F a
pound of water has a volume of 15.86
ounces.
Density decreases if temperature
increases.
 Effects of Pressure

• Increase in pressure causes substances to

compress (if mass remains constant)
• Decrease in pressure causes substances
to expand (if mass remains constant)
• Gases are highly affected; solids and
liquids are hardly affected
 Effects on Viscosity

• Viscosity is a measurement of how

freely a fluid flows
• Viscosity is inversely affected by
temperature
• The higher the temperature, the lower
the viscosity
• The lower the temperature, the higher
the viscosity
 Headmeters
Headmeters infer flow rate by measuring the
differential pressure “head” developed
across a restriction in the flow line.
Types of Headmeters:
– Orifice Plate
– Venturi
– Flow Nozzle
– Annubar
– Pitot tube
 General Theory of Headmeters
• Based on Bernoulli's Principle
• Upstream pressure increases, velocity decreases
• Downstream pressure decreases, velocity increases
• Flowrate “Q” is a function of the differential pressure
developed across the restriction.

Upstream pressure Downstream pressure h

Inches
H2O

Flow Rate
Q Q= 2gh

Restriction in the
flow line reduces
the area
A headmeter produces
an non-linear signal
(Square Root Output)
 Orifice Plates
• Most common and simplest element used to produce a
differential pressure
• Steel plate with hole machined in it
• Taps are installed on the flange to sense differential pressure

Pressure Taps
 Differential Pressure drop across the orifice

• “Beta ratio” – ratio of orifice diameter to inside pipe

diameter
• “Vena Contracta” – fluid is at it’s lowest pressure
• “Orifice run” – pipe arrangement used to establish a
velocity profile
Permanent
pressure loss
reduces the
efficiency.
 Types of Orifice Plates
There are 3 general types of orifice plates that are used to meter gas,
vapour, or liquids with some degree of accurately

A
(A) Concentric bore design
– Used for most clean fluids
– May clog if fluid contains solids
(B) Eccentric bore design
– Hole is off-center
– Used for liquids that contain some solids
(C) Segmental plate
– Used for thin slurries but less accurate

A B C
Orifice Plates often have
small holes at either the top
or bottom of the plate to
allow condensate or gas to
pass through
 Flow Factors - F
When using an orifice plate (or other head meters)
one must compensate for such factors as:
– Temperature
– Pressure
– Reynolds Number (Density, Velocity, Pipe Diameter)
– Fluid Type
When these factors are compensated for the
orifice plate will provide a fairly accurate
measurement.
 Reynolds Number
Reynolds number describes the combined effects of inertia
and viscosity on a fluid. There are 3 ranges - RN has no
dimensions.

• Laminar flow
– low Reynolds number
– less resistance and highest velocity at center of flow
• Turbulent flow
– high Reynolds number
– relatively equal velocity throughout flow
• Transitional flow
– conditions between laminar and turbulent regimes; may be
unstable
Typical Installation
• Orifice plate is the
primary element
• d/p cell is the
secondary element
(some models have
square root
compensation)
• RTD or TC
temperature
transmitter and
pressure transmitter
are used to measure
process fluid for
4-20 mA HART, compensation.
Modbus
 P&ID Version

These factors would be sent and programmed in the PLC or DCS

 Lab Results – d/p cell flow transmitter

d/p Cell Calibration

ORIFICE
Rotameter FT Output
Q (LPM) (mA)

Q 0 4
2
4
4 – 20 mA
6
8 20

Q
 d/p cell (mA) output vs flow (LPM)

20

FT
o/p 12
mA

4
0 4 8
Flow – Liters per Minute
 Lab Results – d/p cell flow transmitter

d/p Cell Calibration

ORIFICE
Rotameter FT Output
Q (LPM) (mA)

Q 0 4
2
4 8
4 – 20 mA
6
8 20

Q
 d/p cell (mA) output vs flow (LPM)
20

Square Root Output

16
“h” Q= h

o/p 12
mA

4
0 2 4 6 8
Q Flow – Liters per Minute
 d/p cell (mA) output vs flow (LPM)
100 20

Square Root Output

75 16
h(%) Q= h

50 12

25 8

70.7%
0 4
0 2 4 6 8
0 25 50 75 100
Q (%)
 Square Root Extractors
• The non-linear output can make it difficult
for controlling flows,
• A square root extractor converts the output
of the d/p cell into a linear signal.
• Some d/p cells have this function built in
• Most DCS/PLC systems can also do the
conversion.
Advantages and disadvantages - Orifice Plates

• Simple & inexpensive

• Good for measuring clean liquids, gases and vapour
• Accuracy depends on proper installation and design
• Poor efficiency due to pressure loss
• Pipe bends, valves, and pumps considerations
• Proper bore diameter and sizing should be left for
experts (Reynolds Number, Beta, Efficiency)
• Not suitable for low flows or high viscosity liquids
• Tend to clog, corrode, erode – but easy to replace
• Changing fluid densities require re-calibration
• Not too good for large pipe sizes
• Transmitter orientation important (dependent on
fluid)
 Venturi Tube
• Produces a ∆P signal
just like the orifice but
lower
• The flow restriction
occurs gradually therefore
it is more efficient than
the orifice.
• More expensive
• Doesn’t clog
 Flow Nozzle
• Half orifice - Half venturi
• Permanent pressure
loss is better than orifice
- less than venturi
• Ideal for steam flow
• ∆P is lower than orifice -
higher than venturi
 Pitot Tube
• Simple and inexpensive
• Very small pressure loss but low ∆P
• Only good with high velocity fluids

L
H
Summary of Headmeters - ∆P
• Orifice plate
• Venturi tube
• Flow Nozzle
• Pitot tube
• Others
– Dall tube
– Elbow taps
 Variable Area Flow Meters
Rotameters are the most common type of
VA flow meters.

• The force of the flowing fluid (Q) causes

the float to rise.
• The height of the float against a calibrated
scale determines the flow rate.
• Scale calibration is marked as
• Liquids - gpm, (gallons per minute)
• Gas - scfm (standard cubic ft. minute)
 Rotameter - How it works
The weight and shape of the
float are designed to match
the fluid properties.
• As the flow increases the area
between the float and tube
increase.
• The float finds a height where
the pressure of the fluid and
weight of the float are equal.
 Rotameter Summary
• no output for data transmission
• sensitive to differing gas types and
changes in Temperature and pressure
• Inexpensive
• somewhat self-cleaning
• no power required
• available in different materials for
chemical compatibility
Positive Displacement Flowmeters

Flowmeters that measure fluid

flow by transferring fluid and
counting volume

Q is measured in terms of volume

without reference to time
Some types have timing units and
can provide a rate measurement
 P D Flowmeters - basics
• Positive displacement flowmeters repeatedly entrap fluid to
measure its flow. It can be thought of as repeatedly filling and
emptying a bucket.
• The number of times that the bucket is filled represents the flow.
• Many positive displacement flowmeter geometries are available.
 PD Flowmeter Types
Typically named after the mechanical part inside the chamber

Nutating Disc Rotating Lobe Rotating Impeller

Oval Gear Rotating Vane

 Positive Displacement Meters
3. Oval Gear
5. Rotating
Impeller
1. Nutating
Disc
2. Rotating
Vane
4. Rotating
Lobe
 PD Flowmeter Summary
• Very accurate flow measurements
• All create high pressure drops
• Good for viscous flow
• Liquid PD different from Gas PD
• Rate measurement requires additional
circuitry.
• Wide range of flow measurements
 Turbine Flowmeters

High accuracy
Fast response
Improved viscosity compensation
Increased rangeability
Material flexibility.

• Measures the velocity of the fluid.

• Can provide a Volumetric or,
• Rate measurement (4-20 mA, pulses
per Q)
Paddle wheel & Axial Design
 Vortex Flowmeters
A vortex is created The imparted energy
when a fluid has generates “vortices” or
to flow around a (eddies) proportional to
“bluff” (strut) the flow

Liquid
Gas
Vapour

Flow is measured by sensing the number of “eddies”. Note

eddies create variations in temperature, pressure and density.
 Vortex Components
The 3 major components are
– Strut-mounted bluff body
– Sensor to convert the vortex into a electrical signal
– The conditioning circuit to convert the electrical
impulses to a standard output (4-20 mA, pulses/min)

A vortex or strut meter can provide rate or quantity measurements

 Magnetic Flowmeters
Mag meters can handle
most liquids and slurries
There are no moving parts
nor do they obstruct the
flow
Flowing medium must be
conductive, not suitable
for gas or steam flow.
 Summary Mag Meters
Pros: 
• Minimum obstruction in the flow path yields minimum pressure drop  
• Low maintenance cost because of no moving parts  
• High linearity  
• Two and multi beam models have higher accuracy than other
comparably priced flowmeters  
• Can be used in hazardous environments or measure corrosive or
slurry fluid flow   

Cons: 
• Requires electrical conductivity of fluid higher than 3 µS/cm in most
cases  
• Zero drifting at no/low flow (may be avoided by low flow cut-off; new
designs improve on this issue)
• No bubbles
 Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Non-intrusive method for measuring flow.
Two designs are available
• Doppler – one sensor is used to measure
frequency shift.
• Transit Time – two sensors are used to
measure the difference in time
 Doppler
• Transmitted wave hits particles in the liquid
and reflect back.
• The velocity of the fluid creates a frequency
shift and is converted into a flow measurement

Not suitable for clear liquids or gases.

Affected by changes in density and
temperature
Not the most accurate flowmeter
Transit Time (Time of Flight)
• Two transducers are required (upstream &
downstream)
• It takes less time to go upstream than downstream
• Flow is a function of the difference in time it takes for
the transmitted waves to reach each receiver.

Good for clear liquids or gases

Better accuracy than Doppler
Difficult to align
 Open-Channel Flow Measurement

The basic principle measuring flow through an open channel is to

measure the height of the liquid as it passes over an obstruction
(weir or flume) in the channel.
 Selecting a Flow Meter
The basis of good flowmeter selection is a clear understanding of the
requirements of the particular application. Therefore, time should be invested
in fully evaluating the nature of the process fluid and of the overall installation.
Here are some key questions which need to answered before selecting a
flowmeter:
• What is the fluid being measured by the flowmeter or flowmeters
(air,water,etc…)?
• Do you require rate measurement and/or totalization from the flow meter?
• If the liquid is not water, what viscosity is the liquid?
• Is the fluid clean?
• Do you require a local display on the flow meter or do you need an electronic
signal output?
• What is the minimum and maximum flowrate for the flow meter?
• What is the minimum and maximum process pressure?
• What is the minimum and maximum process temperature?
• Is the fluid chemically compatible with the flowmeter wetted parts?
• If this is a process application, what is the size of the pipe?