HYPOTHALAMUS:

PLEASURE&REWARD,
AVERSION Jayalakshmi.k
M.Sc. Clinical Psychology
HYPOTHALAMUS

 The hypothalamus is an area in the diencephalon, located inferior

to the thalamus
 the classic Greek word: hypo means “under”. The word thalamus
is also originated from Greek, and interestingly enough, it
literally means “bridal couch”, “nuptial chamber” or “innermost
room”.
 The hypothalamus is an exceedingly ancient structure. Unlike
most other brain regions, it has remained somewhat similar in
structure throughout phylogeny and apparently over the course of
evolution.
 Located in the most medial aspect of the brain, along the walls
and floor of the third ventricle
HYPOTHALAMUS

 The hypothalamus is at the center of a plethora of physiological

processes including, but not limited to, thermoregulation,
osmoregulation and hormonal regulation.
 It is a small cone-shaped structure that projects downward from the
brain, ending in the pituitary stalk, a tubular connection to the
pituitary gland.
 It is fully functional at birth and is the central core from which all
emotions derive their motive force.
 the hypothalamus is highly involved in all aspects of endocrine,
hormonal, visceral, and autonomic functions.
 Exerts controlling influence on eating, drinking, the experience of
pleasure, rage, and aversion
HYPOTHALAMUS

 Neural systems of the hypothalamus influence many types of

behavior, but the most frequently studied behaviors are those
closely related to physiological functions, such as food water
ingestion and sexual behavior.
 It is responsible for thermal, osmotic, and nutritional balance of
the body.
 The lateral and ventromedial area of hypothalamus plays a huge
role in exerting:
- pleasure,& reward
 Aversion
 Eating and drinking
PLEASURE AND REWARD

 Lateral parts of the hypothalamus are involved in emotions such as pleasure

and reward.
 In 1953 Olds and Milner began research in rewarding effect using electrical
stimulation of brain.
 Olds and Milner were attempting to determine the behavioral effects of
electrical stimulation of "arousal systems.“
 While testing on animals, they noticed that while stimulating particular area
in brain, the animal turned to be aroused.
 The above result lead them to create an operant chamber were the animal
could pull the lever themselves.
 Pressing the lever activated control devices that sent small amounts of
electrical current between the electrodes implanted deep in the animal's
brains, exciting nearby tissues.
PLEASURE AND REWARD

 Olds and Milner’s study turning point in the theoretical analysis

of brain-behavior relationships.
 Olds and Milner experiment involved in stimulating septal area.
 Further investigations soon found sites in many areas of the brain
that produced positively rewarding effects when electrically
stimulated,
 These areas were mostly found in some areas of limbic system
and some of the surrounding transitional cortical areas.
 The most "rewarding" regions of the brain are found along the
base of the brain in the general region of the lateral
hypothalamus.
Pleasure and reward

 PLEASURE CENTER
 Researchers have found that the main centers of the brain’s reward
circuit are located along the medial forebrain bundle (MFB).
 The ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the nucleus accumbens are
the two major centers in this circuit.
 It also includes other areas:
-Septum
-Amygdala
-Prefrontal cortex
-Hypothalamus
PLEASURE AND REWARD

 Reward circuit
 There are several areas of the brain whose activation can have gratifying effects,
but it is the stimulation of one particular pathway that produces the most intense
pleasure. This is the medial forebrain bundle (MFB), which runs between the
ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the lateral hypothalamus.
 The reward circuit is a sub-structure of the MFB, composed of the axons of the
dopaminergic neurons that project from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens.
 Olds (1956) found that the medial forebrain bundle (MFB) was a major pathway
that supported this activity. Although the MFB interconnects the hippocampus,
hypothalamus, septum, amygdala, orbital frontal lobes . Olds discovered that in its
course up to the lateral hypothalamus, reward sites become more densely packed.
 The greatest area of concentration and the highest rates of self- stimulatory activity
were found to occur not in the MFB but in the lateral hypothalamus
PLEASURE AND REWARD

 Electrophysiological studies of single lateral hypothalamic

neurons indicate that these cells become highly active in response
to rewarding food items.
 If the lateral region is destroyed, the experience of pleasure and
emotional responsiveness is almost completely attenuated.
PLEASURE AND REWARD

 Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) and

the Medial Forebrain Bundle (MFB).
ventral tegmental area (VTA), which is
the region responsible for that first
release of dopamine into the brain.
The VTA then activates dopamine
neurons in the medial forebrain bundle
(MFB), a thick bundle of neurons that
travel from the VTA to the lateral
hypothalamus
PLEASURE AND REWARD

 The dopamine the VTA sends out travels through two different pathways.
1. Mesolimbic pathway
2. Mesocortical pathway

 The mesolimbic pathway is the important part of dopamine reward circuit.

 This pathway is highly involved in dopamine’s most commonly thought of
function: pleasure and reward.
 This pathway begins at the ventral tegmental area (VTA).
 The VTA is a dopamine-rich nucleus that covers part of the midbrain and
projects dopaminergic action potentials to another area of the brain called the
nucleus accumbens
REWARD AND PLEASURE

 the NA where dopamine primarily mediates feelings of pleasure

and reward. Thus, whenever a person encounters rewarding or
pleasurable stimuli dopamine is released and sends signals from
the VTA to the NAc, which creates positive feelings that reinforce
the behavior.
 Stimulation of the NAc is important for maintaining our day-to-
day activity. However, over-stimulation can lead to cravings for
the item that stimulated the NAc.
PLEASURE AND REWARD

Mesocortical Dopamine Pathways

 Like in the mesolimbic pathway, dopaminergic projections within
the mesocortical pathway originate in the VTA.
 From the VTA, action potentials travel to areas in the prefrontal
cortex (PFC).
 The PFC is highly involved in cognition, working memory, and
decision making
PLEASURE PRINCIPLE

 Freud in 1911 describes pleasure not only serve to maximize

pleasure experience, but act to keep psyche as a whole free from
level of excitation
 Functionally isolated, the hypothalamus has no way of reducing
tension or mobilizing organism from any form of effective action
 When tension is associated with immediate needs become
unpleasant and response is regulated
AVERSION

 The medial zone of hypothalamus is part of a circuitry that

controls motivated behaviors, like defensive behaviors.
 Stimulation of medial hypothalamus unlike lateral hypothalamus
can lead to aversion
 Electrical stimulation of the medial region leads to behavior that
terminates the stimulation, thus it leads to relief.
 It is stated that when nutritional requirements are met it leads to
activation of medial region becomes activated, this leads to the
behavior that terminates it’s activation that is, stops eating
AVERSION

 Medial hypothalamic activity can lead to state of motionlessness.

 The organism is motivated to simply stop respond or to
behaviour.
 This inactive state may be physiologically neutral.
 In other situations medial hypothalamic activity may be highly
aversive.
 Dormancy is also associated with parasympathetic activity, which
is mediated by the medial area.
REFERENCE

Joseph, R. (1990a). Neuropsychology, Neuropsychiatry, and

Behavioural Neurology. Springer.
Isacson, R. (1982). The Limbic System (2nd ed.). Springer.
Dudas, B. (2013). The Human Hypothalamus: Anatomy, Functions
and Disorders (Neuroscience Research Progress) (1st ed.). Nova
Science Publishers, Inc.
THANKYOU