Cytology & Histolgy

HBEZ101
(LECTURE 7)

NYAGANGA E
Connective tissue
 Connective Tissue functions
 Protection, connection, support
 Provide and maintain body form
 Connective Tissue Composition
 Cells - diverse morphology of cell types,
 Fibers - protein fibers, produced by cells found in matrix
 Matrix - amorphous ground substance
Connective tissue origin
Connective Tissue Types

 Classified by Matrix
 Fluid - Blood
 Soft- Connective Tissue Proper
(Loose Irregular, Dense Irregular, Dense Regular, Adipose, Reticular)
 Semi soft - Cartilage
 Solid - Bone

TYPE CELLS FIBERS MATRIX

1. Blood,Lymph
2. Loose irregular
connective tissue
3. Adipose
4. Dense regular connective
tissue
5. Cartilage tissue
6. Bone tissue
blood cells, lymphocytes dissolved watery
fibroplasts macrophages collagen elastin, reticular hyaluronic acid
mast cells plasma cells
adipocytes collagen elastin, reticular hyaluronic acid
fibroblasts primarily collagen viscous due to hyaluronic acid
chondrocytes collagen, elastin, reticular chondroitin sulfate
osteocytes collagen mineralized, calcium phosphate
and calcium carbonate
BLOOD

 It is considered a connective tissue, because it

consists of blood cells surrounded by a nonliving
fluid matrix called blood plasma.
 It is the most atypical connective tissue: the
fibers of blood are soluble protein molecules
that become visible during blood clotting.
 It is found in blood vessels.
 Blood has three functions:
Functions of blood
 Transportation
 Blood delivers oxygen from the lungs and nutrient from the digestive
tract to all body cells;
 ittransports carbon dioxide to the lungs and nitrogenous waste to the
kidney for removal from the body;
 ittransports hormones from their endocrine glands to their target
organs.

 Regulation
 Blood helps regulate body temperature and pH in body tissues.

 Protection
 Platelets
and plasma proteins prevent blood loss by forming clots
when blood vessels are damaged.
 Antibodies, complement proteins and white blood cells fight
infection.
Blood and Lymph

 Bloodcontains red cells, white cell populations and

plasma
 Lymph normally contains only one type of white cell,
lymphocyte. Fluid passes from the blood into the
tissues, and the lymphatic vessels return that fluid to
the circulation
 Blood is a Connective Tissue with a Fluid Matrix
(plasma)
 Ability to form fibers - Fibrinogen -> Fibrin
 Formed Elements (contains cellular component of
tissue)
 Wrights Blood Stain [Eosin, RED acid stain, Methylene
Blue, basic stain]
Blood cells and lymphocytes
Erythrocytes
Neutrophilic Polynuclear cells
Eosinophilic Polnuclear cells
Basophilic Polynuclear cells
Large lymphocytes, small lymphocytes
Monocytes
Platelets.
Red Blood Cells

 Enucleated, Biconcave Disk 7.2um

Macrocyte diameter greater than 9um
Microcyte diameter less than 6um
 Mature= Filled with hemoglobin, Transports
Oxygen, No mitochondria, NO protein synthesis
 Flexable - to fit varible capillary diameter
 Normal count Female = 4.5-5 x 106, Male = 5 x 106
 120 day life span then Death of RBC, removed by
spleen & bone marrow
 Hemopoeisis
 -Process in which blood cells are formed
 In the embryo it is produced from the yolk sac.
 Adult: In the red marrow of flat bones (sternum,
vertebrae, ribs, clavicles, bones of pelvis, skull)

 Bone Marrow - Reticular connective Tissue

 (Reticular
cells, sinusoidal capillaries, adipose cells,
RBC maturation
Blood cells and lymphocytes
Erythrocytes
Neutrophilic Polynuclear cells
Eosinophilic Polnuclear cells
Basophilic Polynuclear cells
Large lymphocytes, small lymphocytes
Monocytes
Platelets.
White Blood Cells
 Leukocytes [7-9 X 103]
 Neutrophilic Polynuclear cells
60% - 70% circulating WBC. diameter
12um
Lobed nucleus, 2-5
Granules,
purple with Wrights stain, [staining
varies among mammals
Neutrophils
Acute infection, highly mobile, highly
phagocytic
Spherical in the blood, amebiform
[forms pseudopodia]on solid substrate
Granules decrease in number after
phagocytosis
Functions in anerobic enviroment of
necrotic tissue
Terminal cell, once it uses its
proteins, can not be replaced
Myeloid element
Eosinophilic Polnuclear cells
 1% - 4% circulating WBC. diameter 9um
 Bilobed nucleus
 Granules,
 Red with Wrights stain, Eosinophilic
 Larger than neutrophils
 Not highly mobile or phagocytic
 Phagocytosis of Selective Antigen antibody
complexes
 Increases in number in allergic reactions and
parasitic infections
 Myeloid element
Basophilic Polynuclear cells

 0% - 1% circulating WBC. diameter 12um

 Large twisted s shaped nucleus
 Granules,
 Irregular in size and shape
 Blue/metachromatic staining
basophilic
 Larger than other granuocytes
 Histamine & Heparin
 Released in the presence of certain antigens
 Surrounded by unit membrane
 Not very active or phagocytic
 Myeloid element
 Large lymphocytes, small lymphocytes

 25% - 40% circulating WBC. diameter 6-8um

 Heterogenous population of cells, small,
medium, & large
 Round nucleus
 Cytoplasm, some times small azurephilic
granules
 Origin: Bone marrow
 Become immunocompetant out side of the bone
marrow
 Differentiate into B cells & T cells
 Colonize other organs
Lymphocytes
B Cell Functions [matures in Bursa in birds]
 Activated by antigen
 Differentiates into Plasma cells
 Produces antibodies
 Produces Memory cells
T Cell Functions [matures in thymus gland]
 Cell mediated immunity
 Binds to foreign cells
 Graft rejection
 Produces Memory cells
T Helper & Surpressor cells
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
 Nucleus - oval, kidney, horseshoe; 2-3
nuclei
 Basophilic cytoplasm with azurophilic
granules (lysosome)
 Highly mobile, highly phagocytophilic
 Major cell of chronic infections (100
bacteria per cell)
 Moves into the tissues from the blood
after a few days, becomes a histiocyte
 Mononuclear phagocytic system
(reticuloendothelial system)
 Receptors on the plasma membrane
for complement & immunogloublins
Platelets "thrombocytes!"

 Fragments of megakaryocyte
cytoplasm
 central zone - purple granule,
granulomere
 transparent zone blue stained,
hylomere
 Releases
 serotonin - constricks blood vessels
 thromboplastin - converts prothrombin ->
thrombin
 thrombosthenin - causes contraction of
the clot
Total blood count
Normal Adult counts Total WBC = 5,000 - 10,000 cells per
millimeter3
Granulocyte Count %(60-70%) Agranulocytes Count %
s

Formed in Red Marrow from Formed in Marrow and Lymphoid

Myeloblasts Organs

Neutrophils 3,000 - 50 - 70% Lymphocytes 1,500 - 25 - 40%

7,000 3,000

Eosinophils 50 - 400 1 - 4% Monocytes 200 - 800 3 - 8%

(Acidophils)

Basophils 0 - 100 0 - 1%
Bone Marrow and Hematopoiesis
 Yellow marrow  storage and reserve, rich in adipose (fat) cells
 Red marrow rich in RBC,
 Newborn - all marrow is red

 Structure
 fixed cells, reticular cells, sinusoidal capillaries, macrophages, adipose cells
 free cells, RBC & WBC maturation series
remain in groups, one cell type predominates, in different phases of
development
 Formed elements in the blood have a relatively short life span.
 Their constant disappearance from the blood is balanced by a
continual production of new cells (Hematopoiesis).
 These begin with undifferentiated stem cells and go through the
processes of differentiation and mitosis.
Erythropoiesis
 The stem cell (hemocytoblast!) or CFU is formed only
the bone marrow.
 The morphology of the developmental stage in the
erythrocytic and granulocytic series in the bone marrow
is diagramed in color (page xi) and black and white
(page 294) of your text book, Basic Histology.
 Erythrocyctic series [RBC maturation ] = Intermediates
in the developement of Red Blood cells (Erythrocytes)
 Proerythroblast

 Basophilic erythroblast
 Polychromatophilic erythroblast
 Normoblast

 Reticulocyte

 Erythrocyte
 Granulocytic series
 Intermediates in the development of granulocytic
White Blood cells
Promyelocyte

Metamyelocytes - Neutrophilic Basophilic and Eosinophilic

Mature granulocytes.
 Platelet Production
 Megakaryoblast (2n, 4n, 8n, 16n), develops into
Megakaryocyte (32n) in the bone marrow.
 Platelets
are cytoplasmic fragments of the
Megakaryocyte.
 Lymphocytic series
 Originate mainly in Lymphatic organs and to a lesser extent in the bone
marrow
 Circulating stem cells are indistinguishable from nature Lymphocyte.
 Lymphoblast, largest cell of series with 2 or 3 nucleoli,
 Prolymphocyte, smaller nucleoli not easily seen.
 Monocytic series –
 Originates in bone marrow and terminates in connective tissue as a
macrophage.

Promonocyte
Monoblast? cannot be identified
accurately in the normal person but are
clearly seen in the circulation of patients
with monocytic leukemia.
Summary - Haematopoiesis
TYPE CELLS FIBERS MATRIX
1. Blood,Lymph blood cells, dissolved watery
lymphocytes

2. Loose irregular fibroplasts collagen elastin, hyaluronic acid

connective tissue macrophages mast reticular
cells plasma cells

3. Adipose adipocytes collagen elastin, hyaluronic acid

reticular

4. Dense regular fibroblasts primarily collagen viscous due to hyaluronic acid

connective tissue

5. Cartilage tissue chondrocytes collagen, elastin, chondroitin sulfate

reticular

6. Bone tissue osteocytes collagen mineralized, calcium

phosphate and calcium
carbonate
Connective cells
 Fibroblast-
 the most numerous of the cells
 secretes ground substance and fibers
 Macrophages-
 part of the body’s defense system via phagocytosis
 Plasma cells-
 part of the body’s defense system via the secretion of antibodies
 Mast cells-
 active in inflammation
 located around blood vessels
 secretesheparin (anticoagulant) and histamine (vasodilator),
and other cytokines
Connective Tissue Matrix
 (non-living material that separates and binds cells
together)
 Produced by the connective tissue cells
 Consist of protein fibers embedded in a fluid, gel, or solid
called ground substance
 Providesa medium through which substances can be
exchanged between blood and cells.
 Containstwo important chemicals contained in ground
substance:
 Hyaluronic acid - a viscous, slippery substance that binds cells
together, lubricates joints, aids in phagocyte migration, and
maintains the shape of the eyeball.
 Chondroitin sulfate - jellylike substance that provides support
and adhesiveness in cartilage, bone, the skin, and blood vessels.
Three Kinds of Fibers are embedded in the matrix

 Collagen fibers-
 tough, strong, flexible fibers composed of the protein collagen.
 usually found in bundles giving great strength.
 most abundant protein in the body (25% of all total body protein)
 found most abundant in bones, cartilage, tendon, and ligaments
 Elastic fibers-
 freely branching fibers consisting of the protein called elastin.
 provides strength and stretch
 plentiful in skin, blood vessels, and lungs
 Reticular fibers-
 a thin reinforcing type fiber consisting of collagen and a coating of glycoprotein.
 fibers join to form a branching network or lattice (reticulum)
 provide support in the walls of blood vessels and a supportive network around
nerve fibers and muscle
Connective Tissue Classified into two broad
categories
 Embryonic C.T.- c. t. that is primarily in the embryo or fetus.
 Mature C.T.- exist in the newborn and is derived from the
embryonic c.t.
 Embryonic Connective Tissue
 Mesenchyme- found almost exclusively in the embryo and is the tissue from
which all other tissue is derived (undifferentiated c.t.)
 composed of irregular shaped cells in a jellylike matrix with delicate
reticular fibers
 Mucous- jellylike embryonic c.t. found primarily in the umbilical cord of the
fetus where supports the wall of the cord.

 Mature Connective Tissue

 Subdivided into loose and Dense
CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
 Loose areolar tissue

 The fibroblasts are embedded in the

matrix: they do not lie in lacunae
(chambers within the matrix).
 The fibers are loosely woven and
thus the ground substance is highly
visible.
 The three types of fibers (collagen,
elastic and reticular) are present in
roughly the same amount.
 Many accessory cells (macrophages,
mast cells, plasma caells) can be
found in these tissues.
 It is the most widely distributed
connective tissue in the body.
Loose areolar tissue

 Connective tissue proper loose areolar is a soft pliable tissue that

serves as a general packaging material.
 It packages organs,
 wraps small blood vessels and nerves (fascia),
 surrounds glands,
 forms the superficial part of the dermis as well as the
hypodermis which attaches the skin to underlying structures.
 It is present in all mucous membranes as the lamina propria.
 areolar tissue and adipose tissue combined form the
subcutaneous tissue that attaches the skin to underlying
structures
 abundant elastic and collagen fibers in a ground substance
containing mostly hyaluronic acid.
Adipose tissue
 This tissue is basically an aerolar connective tissue
invaded by fat cells (adipocytes).
 Seen through the light microscope, the adipocytes look
like big white blobs:
 an oil droplet occupies most of the cell volume, pushing
the cell's nucleus to the periphery.
 The adipocytes are packed closely together and account
for about 90% of the tissue mass.
Adipose tissue
 Adipose tissue provides reserve fuel for cells in the
body.
 Since fat is a poor heat conductor it insulates the body
against heat loss.
 Italso supports and protects organs by acting as shock
absorber.
 Adipose tissue may develop almost anywhere areolar
tissue is plentiful, but it usually accumulates in
subcutaneous tissue, around kidneys and eyeballs, in
bones, in breasts and within the abdomen.
 Adiposetissue is richly vascularized, indicating its high
metabolic activity.
CT Proper Loose: Reticular
 Thefibroblasts are embedded in the
matrix: they do not lie in lacunae
(chambers within the matrix).
 Theground substance is highly visible. It is
loosely packed with fibers mostly reticular,
which form a fine network supporting
accessory cells.
 Reticular tissue forms the delicate
framework (or stroma) that supports blood
cells in lymph nodes, the spleen and bone
marrow
CT Proper Dense: Reticular fibres
 The fibroblasts are embedded in the matrix: they do not lie in
lacunae (chambers within the matrix).
 The fibers are densely packed and thus the ground substance is
barely visible. Fibers are the predominant element of this
connective tissue and, for this reason, dense connective tissue
proper is often referred to as fibrous connective tissue.
 In contrast with loose connective tissue proper, most of the cells
found here are fibroblasts: there are virtually no accessory cells.
 Connective tissue proper dense can be subdivided into three types
 regular
 irregular
 elastic
 Connective tissues proper dense are found in organs that have to
withstand great tensile stress (stretch). Eg muscles
CT Proper: Regular
 The fibroblasts are embedded in the matrix: they do
not lie in lacunae (chambers within the matrix).
 Thefibers are densely packed and thus the ground
substance is barely visible.
 The fibers are primary collagenous fibers and are
arranged parallel to each other (a few elastic fibers
are also present in the matrix). This results in a
white flexible tissue with great resistance to forces
pulling in one direction.
 The collagen fibers are slightly wavy: this allows the
tissue to stretch a little until the fibers are
straightened out but not more.
CT Proper Regular
 Itis found in areas where tension is
always exerted in a single direction, such
as:
 tendons (cords attaching muscles to bones),
 aponeuroses (flat sheets attaching muscles
to bones or to other muscles)
 ligaments (attaching bones together at
joints).
 Ligaments contain more elastic fibers than
do tendons and thus are slightly more
stretchy.
Irregular dense CT Proper
 The fibroblasts are embedded in the matrix: they do
not lie in lacunae (chambers within the matrix).
 Thefibers are densely packed and thus the ground
substance is barely visible.
 The fibers are primary collagenous fibers and are
interwoven without a regular orientation (a few
elastic fibers are also present in the matrix). This
results in a white flexible tissue with great resistance
to forces pulling in several directions.
 The collagen fibers are slightly wavy: this allows the
tissue to stretch a little until the fibers are
straightened out but not more.
Irregular dense CT Proper
 Itusually forms sheets in area where tension is
exerted in many directions such as:
 the skin (in the deeper layer of the dermis),
 the wall of the digestive tract (it forms the submucosa),
 heart valves,
 fibrous pericardium,
 perichondrium (membrane around the surface of cartilage),
 periosteum (membrane around the surface of the bone),
 fibrous capsules of organs and of joints.
Proper dense CT eg elastic fibres
 The fibroblasts are embedded in the matrix: they do not lie in lacunae
(chambers within the matrix).
 The fibers are densely packed and thus the ground substance is barely
visible.
 The fibers are primary elastic fibers and they give the tissue a yellowish
color.
 Dense elastic connective tissue combines strength with elasticity: it can
be stretched very easily and then recoils to its original length as soon as
the tension is released.
 It confers elastic properties which enable recovery of tissue shape
following normal physiological deformation or stretching.
 It is found in the
 vocal cords,
 in some ligaments (such as the ligamenta flava that connect adjacent vertebrae
and the suspensory ligament of penis),
 in the walls of elastic arteries,
 in parts of the trachea and bronchi, and in the lung tissue.
Cartilage
 Consist of a dense network of collagen and elastic fibers
embedded in a firm matrix of chondroitin sulfate (a jellylike
substance that provides support and adhesiveness in cartilage,
bone, skin, and blood vessels).
 stronger than the other c.t. due to its collagen fibers.
 high resilience (ability to assume its original shape after
deformation) is due to chondroitin sulfate.
 the inner substance of the cartilage has no blood supply or
nerves.
 the perichondrium (the dense irregulare c.t. membrane around
the surface of the cartilage) has a blood supply and nerves.
 cells of mature cartilage are called chondrocytes
 occur singly or in groups within spaces called lacunae within
the matrix
Three Kinds of Cartilage

 Hyaline
 Fibrocartilage
 Elastic

 Hyaline Cartilage (gristle)

 appears as bluish-grey and shiny
 is the weakest of the three types
 is the most abundant
 -Matrix include type 11 collagen fibers
 it gives flexibility, support, reduces friction, and absorbs shock at joints
-- Located in nose, larynx, trachea, brochi
-- Because refractive index of collagen fibrils and that of ground substance are
nearly the same, the matrix appears to be an armophous , hormogenous mass with a
light microscope
-- When chondrocytes die the matrix calcify-resulting in endochondral bone
formation
Fibrocartilage
 is the strongest of the three types and provides strength and rigidity
 Does not posses a perichondriun
 Matrix composed of type1 collagen fibers.
 Present in intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis and articular disks.
 Displays scant amount of matrix
 chondrocytes are scattered among bundles of collagen fibers within the matrix.

Elastic Cartilage

 Resembles hyaline cartilage except that matrix and perichondrium possess elastic fibers
 Matrix includes type 11 collagen fiber
 Because of the presence of elastic fibers, elastic cartilage is somewhat yellow and more
opaque than hyaline in the fresh state
 Because it has abundant elastic fibers interposed by collagen fibers it gives it more flexibility
than the matrix of hyaline cartilage.
 Chondrocytes of elastic cartilage are more abundant and larger than those of hyaline cartilage

 provides strength and maintains strength of certain organs

 chondrocytes are located in a threadlike network of elastic fibers within the matrix.
(epiglottis, external ear)
Bone
 Bone is one of the hardest tissues in the body.
 Primary structural framework for support and protection of the organs of the body including brain, spinal cord.
 Reservoir for minerals e.g it stores 99% Calcium
 Contain bone marrow, a hemopoietic tissue
 External layer, except synovial articulations is covered by periozsteum
 Osteoblasts secrete the matrix and and when these cells are sorroubded by the matrix they are called osteocytes
 In decalcified osteocytes are distorted by the decalcifier and in ground bone the lacunae and canaliculi are filled with bone tissue.
 The extracellular matrix is calcified, incarcerating the cells that secreted it.
 Bone matrix has inorganic (mostly calcium and phosphorus) and organic (predominantlt type1 collagen)
 Type 1 collagen is highly cross linked, which prevents it from being easily extracted.

 The hardness of the bone, its ability to resist compression, is due to the inorganic calcium phosphate (calcium hydroxyapatite)
deposited within the matrix.
 Numerous collagen fibers embedded within the matrix give the bone its ability to resist twisting and stretching.
 The mature bone cells are called osteocytes. They are connected together by very fine tentacle-like cytoplasmic processes.
 Osteocytes lie within chambers in the matrix called lacunae.
 Radiating in all direction from the lacunae are minute canals called canaliculi. They connect the lacunae with each other.
 Canaliculi are filled with extracellular fluid and contain the slender cytoplasmic processes of the osteocytes.
 There are two types of bone tissue:
 compact bone
 spongy bone
Cells of Bone
 Cells of bone are osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblast, osteocytes and osteoclasts
 Osteoprogenitor cells-located in the inner layer of the periosteum, lining haversian canals and in the
endosteum.
 Are spindle shaped and have a pale staining oval nucleus.
 Can undergo mitotic divison and have the potential into osteoblasts
 Osteoblasts-derived from osteoprogenitor cells
 Synthesise bone matrix including type 1 collagen
 Located on the surface of the bone in a sheetlike arrangement of cuboidal to columnar cells
 Osteoblasts secretes bone matirx and surrounds itself with the matrix and when this occurs the cells
becomes an osteocyte
 The space occupied byan osteocyte is called a lacuna
 Radiating out from the lacuna are naroow , tunnel-like spaces that house cytoplasmic processess of
the osteocyte-Canaliculi
 Although they appear to be inactive, Osteocytes secrete substances necessary for bone maintanence
 Osteoclast- Large , motile, multinucleated cells
 Originate from granulocyte-macrophage progenitors. The precursor originate in the bone maroow
 Osteoclasts are responsible for resorbing bone and after that these cells probably undergo apoptosis
 They occupy shallow depressions called Howship’s lacunae, that identify regions of bone resorption
Compact Bone
 Compact (dense) bone tissue consists of precise arrangements of
microscopic cylindrical structures called osteons. The matrix and
osteocytes of osteon are laid down in concentric rings around a central
(Haversian) canal.
 Compact bone tissue forms the external layer of all bones and the bulk of
the diaphyses (shaft) of the long bones.
 It provides protection and support and helps the long bones resist the
stress of weight placed on them.

Spongy Bone
 In contrast to compact bone tissue, spongy (cancellous) bone consists of
an irregular latticework of thin blades of bone called trabeculae.
 The space between the trabeculae are filled with red marrow which
produces blood cells.
 Spongy bone makes up most of the bone tissue of short, flat and
irregularly shaped bones and most of the heads (epiphyses) of long bones.
Summary – Connective Tissue