Chapter 07

Lecture Outline
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 Chapter 7
Skeletal System

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7.1 Introduction

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A. Bones are very active, living tissues
B. Each bone is made up of several types of tissues
(bone, cartilage, dense connective tissue, blood,
and nervous tissue) and so is an organ.
C. Bone functions include: muscle attachment,
protection and support of soft tissues, blood cell
production, and storage of inorganic salts.

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7.2 Bone Structure

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A. Classification of bones according to shape
1. Long – Ex. – arm and leg bones
2. Short – Ex. – bones of the wrist and ankles
a. Sesamoid (round) bones – Ex. – patella
3. Flat – Ex. – ribs, scapula, skull bones
4. Irregular – Ex. – vertebrae, facial bones

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B. Parts of a Long Bone
1. Expanded ends of bones that form joints with
adjacent bones are called epiphyses.
2. Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) covers the
epiphyses.
3. The shaft of the bone is the diaphysis.
4. A tough layer of vascular connective tissue,
called the periosteum, covers the bone and is
continuous with ligaments and tendons.
5. The diaphysis contains a hollow medullary
cavity that is lined with endosteum and filled
with marrow.

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Parts of a Long Bone, cont.
6. A bone's shape makes possible its function;
bony processes indicate places of attachment
for muscles, openings or grooves for blood
vessels and nerves, and depressions for
articulation.
7. Compact bone makes up the wall of the
diaphysis; the epiphyses are filled with spongy
bone (cancellous) to reduce the weight of the
skeleton.
8. Spongy bone has many branching bony plates
called trabeculae.

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 Fig 7.1 9
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C. Microscopic structure
1. Bone cells (osteocytes) are located within
lacunae that lie in concentric circles around
central (Haversian) canals.
2. Osteocytes pass nutrients and gasses in the
matrix via canaliculi.
3. Extracellular matrix of bone consists mainly of
collagen and inorganic salts.
a. Collagen provides strength and resilience
b. Inorganic salts provides hardness and
resistance to crushing

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Microscopic structure, cont.
4. In compact bone, osteocytes and extracellular
matrix layers are organized into osteons
(Haversian systems) that are cemented
together.
5. Central canals contain blood vessels and
nerve fibers, and extend longitudinally through
bone.
6. Central canals are interconnected by
transverse perforating (Volkmann’s) canals.
7. Unlike compact bone, spongy bone is made of
osteocytes and extracellular matrix that lie
within trabeculae.

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 Fig 7.2 12
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 Fig 7.3 13
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7.3 Bone Development and Growth

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A. Bones form by replacing connective tissues in
the fetus.
B. Some form within sheet-like layers of connective
tissue (intramembranous bones), while others
replace masses of cartilage (endochondral
bones).
C. Intramembranous Bones
1. The broad, flat bones of the skull form as
intramembranous bones.
2. Osteoblasts deposit a bony matrix around
themselves in all directions, forming spongy
bone.

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 Fig 7.4 16
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Intramembranous bones, cont.
3. Once the deposited bony matrix completely
surrounds the osteoblasts, they are then called
osteocytes.
4. Cells of the membranous tissue that lie outside
the developing bone give rise to the
periosteum.
5. Osteoblasts on the inside of the periosteum
form a layer of compact bone over the spongy
bone.
6. The formation of bone is referred to as
ossification.

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D. Endochondral bones
1. Most of the bones of the skeleton fall into this
category.
2. They first develop as hyaline cartilage models
shaped like the future bones and are then
replaced with bone.
3. Cartilage is broken down in the diaphysis and
progressively replaced with bone while the
periosteum develops on the outside.
4. Disintegrating cartilage is invaded by blood
vessels and osteoblasts that first form spongy
bone at the primary ossification center in the
diaphysis.

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Endochondral bones, cont.
5. Osteoblasts from the periosteum lay down
compact bone around the primary ossification
center.
6. Secondary ossification centers appear later in
the epiphyses.
7. A band of hyaline cartilage, the epiphyseal
plate, remains between the two ossification
centers.
8. Layers of cartilage cells undergoing mitosis
make up the epiphyseal plate.

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Endochondral bones, cont.
9. Osteoclasts break down the calcified matrix
and are replaced with bone-building
osteoblasts that deposit bone in place of
calcified cartilage.
10. A long bone continues to lengthen while the
cartilaginous cells of the epiphyseal plate are
active. Once the plate ossifies, the bone is
done growing in length.
11. The medullary cavity forms in the diaphysis
due to the activity of osteoclasts.

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Endochondral bones, cont.
12. Increases in thickness are due to ossification
underneath the periosteum, while epiphyseal
plates are responsible for lengthening bones.

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 Fig 7.5 22
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E. Homeostasis of bone tissue
1. Osteoclasts tear down and osteoblasts build
bone throughout the lifespan with the
processes of resorption and deposition, with
an average of 3% to 5% of bone calcium
exchanged each year.
2. This remodeling process is controlled by
hormones that regulate blood calcium levels.
3. Physical exercise with muscles pulling on
bones will stress the bones, which will increase
in thickness and strength.

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F. Factors affecting bone development, growth, and
repair
1. Nutrition – vitamin D is needed for calcium
absorption
2. Hormonal secretions
a. Growth hormone – stimulates division of
cartilage cells of the epiphyseal plate
b. Sex hormones – stimulate ossification of the
epiphyseal plates to end growth in height

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7.4 Bone Function

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A. Support and protection
1. Bones give shape to the head, face, thorax,
and limbs.
2. Bones such as the pelvis and lower limbs
provide support for the body’s weight.
3. Bones of the skull protect the eyes, ears, and
brain.
4. Bones of the rib cage and shoulder girdle
protect the heart and lungs.
5. Bones of the pelvic girdle protect lower
abdominal and reproductive organs.

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B. Body movement
1. Bones can act as levers
2. A lever has four components: a rigid bar or rod,
a pivot or fulcrum, an object that is moved
against resistance, and a force that supplies
energy.
3. In the skeletal-muscular system the bone is the
bar, the joint is the fulcrum, the object moved is
a body part, and the force comes from muscle
contraction.

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 Fig 7.7 28
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C. Blood cell formation
1. Blood cells begin to form through
hematopoiesis in the yolk sac
2. They are later manufactured in the liver and
spleen and then finally formed in the bone
marrow.

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Blood cell formation, cont.
3. Two kinds of marrow occupy the medullary
cavities and the larger central canals of bone.
a. Red marrow occupies the spongy bone of
the skull, ribs, sternum, clavicles, vertebrae,
and pelvis in adults. It functions in the
formation of red blood cells, white blood
cells, and platelets. Its color comes from the
O2 carrying pigment hemoglobin.
b. Yellow marrow stores fat and occupies most
cavities of bone in adults.

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D. Storage of inorganic salts
1. The extracellular matrix of bone is rich in
calcium salts mainly in the form of calcium
phosphate that is important in many metabolic
processes.
2. Calcium in bone is a reservoir for body
calcium; when blood levels are low,
osteoclasts release calcium from bone under
the influence of the parathyroid hormone.

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Storage of inorganic salts, cont.
3. Calcium is stored in bone under the influence
of calcitonin when blood levels of calcium are
high.
4. Bone also stores magnesium, sodium,
potassium, and carbonate ions.
5. Bones can also accumulate harmful metallic
elements, such as lead, radium, and strontium.

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 Fig 7.8 33
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7.5 Skeletal Organization

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A. The axial skeleton consists of the bony and
cartilaginous parts that support the and protect
the head, neck and trunk. Includes the:
1. Skull – cranium and facial bones
2. Hyoid bone – supports the tongue and aids in
swallowing
3. Vertebral column
4. Thoracic cage – ribs and sternum

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B. The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones
of the upper and lower limbs and the bones that
anchor the limbs to the axial skeleton. Includes
the:
1. Pectoral girdle – clavicle and scapula
2. Upper limbs – humerus, ulna, radius, carpals,
metacarpals, and phalanges
3. Pelvic girdle – 2 hip bones
4. Lower limbs – femur, patella, tibia, fibula,
tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges

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 Fig 7.9 37
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 Table 7.1 38
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7.6 Skull

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A. The skull is made up of 22 bones: 8 cranial
bones and14 facial bones. There are also 3
bones in each middle ear.
B. The cranium encloses and protects the brain,
provides attachments for muscles, and contains
air-filled paranasal sinuses that reduce its weight
and increase vocal resonance.
1. The frontal bone features include the
supraorbital foramen and the frontal sinuses.
2. Parietal bones lie at the sides of the skull, just
behind the frontal bone. They join along the
midline sagittal suture and meet the frontal
bone along the coronal suture.

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 Fig 7.10 41
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 Fig 7.11 42
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Cranium, cont.
3. The occipital bone forms the back of the skull
and the base of the cranium. Features include
the lambdoid suture, foramen magnum, and
occipital condyles.
4. The temporal bones form parts of the sides
and base of the cranium. Features include the
squamous suture, external acoustic meatus,
mandibular fossae, mastoid process, styloid
process, and zygomatic process.

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Cranium, cont.
5. The sphenoid bone helps form the base of the
cranium, sides of the skull and portions of the
orbits. Features include the sella turcica and
sphenoidal sinuses.
6. The ethmoid bone is located in front of the
sphenoid bone. Features include the cribriform
plates, crista galli, a perpendicular plate,
superior and middle nasal conchae, and
ethmoidal sinus.

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C. Facial Skeleton has 13 immovable bones and a
movable lower jawbone which forms the basic
shape of the face and provide attachments for
muscles that move the jaw and control facial
expressions.
1. The maxillae form the upper jaw, hard palate,
floor of the orbits, sides of the nasal cavity,
house the upper teeth, and contain large
maxillary sinuses. Features include the hard
palate, maxillary sinuses, palatine and alveolar
processes, and alveolar arch.

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Facial Skeleton, cont.
2. Palatine bones are L-shaped bones located
behind the maxillae that form the floor & lateral
walls of the nasal cavity and the posterior
portion of the hard palate.
3. Zygomatic bones form the cheekbones and
lateral walls of the orbits. Features include the
temporal processes that join the zygomatic
processes to form the zygomatic arch.
4. The lacrimal bones form part of the medial
walls of the orbits.
5. Nasal bones form the bridge of the nose.

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Facial Skeleton, cont.
6. The vomer bone makes up a portion of the
nasal septum.
7. Inferior nasal conchae are fragile, scroll-
shaped bones that support mucous
membranes in the nasal cavity.
8. The mandible, or lower jawbone, supports the
lower teeth and includes the mandibular
condyle, coronoid process, and alveolar arch.

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 Fig 7.12 48
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 Fig 7.13 49
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 Fig 7.14 50
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 Fig 7.15 51
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D. Infantile skulls are not completely developed and
have fontanels (soft spots) that are membranous
areas of incomplete intramembranous
ossification. The fontanels allow bone movement
during childbirth and brain growth.

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 Fig 7.16 53
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7.7 Vertebral Column

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A. The vertebral column is composed of bony
vertebrae separated by Fibrocartilaginous
intervertebral discs, connected together by
ligaments and extends from the skull to the
pelvis. It supports the head and trunk and
protects the spinal cord that passes through its
vertebral canal.
B. A typical vertebrae consists of a body, pedicles,
laminae, spinous process, vertebral foramen,
transverse process, superior and inferior articular
processes and a intervertebral foramina.

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 Fig 7.17 56
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C. Cervical vertebrae
1. These seven bones comprise the neck and
support the head and have distinctive
transverse foramina.
2. The first vertebra is the atlas, supports the
head. It has two facets that articulate with the
occipital condyles and has no body or spinous
process.
3. The second vertebra is the axis, with its tooth-
like dens that pivots within the atlas.
4. Features that separate cervical vertebrae from
the rest are the bifid spinous processes and
transverse foramina.

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 Fig 7.18a 58
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 Fig 7.19 59
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D. Thoracic vertebrae
1. Twelve thoracic vertebrae articulate with the
ribs and are larger and stronger than the
cervical vertebrae.
2. Features include a long, pointed spinous
process and facets on the side of the body to
articular with the ribs.

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 Fig 7.18b 61
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E. Lumbar vertebrae
1. The five massive lumbar vertebrae support the
weight of the body and are located in the small
of the back.

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 Fig 7.18c 63
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F. Sacrum
1. The sacrum is a triangular structure at the
base of the vertebral column made up of five
vertebrae fused together into one bone.
2. Features include a ridge of tubercles, posterior
sacral foramina, sacral canal, sacral hiatus and
four pairs of anterior sacral foramina.
G. Coccyx
1. The coccyx, tailbone, is the lowest part of the
vertebral column and is typically composed of
four fused vertebrae.

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 Fig 7.20 65
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7.8 Thoracic Cage

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1. The thoracic cage includes the ribs, thoracic
vertebrae, sternum, and costal cartilages.
2. It supports the pectoral girdle and upper limbs,
protects the viscera in the thoracic and upper
abdominal cavities, and plays a role in breathing.

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C. Ribs
1. Normally humans have 12 pairs that attach to
the thoracic vertebrae.
2. The first seven pairs of ribs are true (or
vertebrosternal) ribs that join the sternum
directly by their costal cartilages.
3. The remaining five pairs are false ribs because
they do not reach the sternum directly. The
first three pairs join the cartilages of the
seventh rib, and the last two pairs are floating
ribs, because they have no cartilaginous rib
attachments.

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Ribs, cont.
4. Features of a typical rib include a curved shaft,
head, and tubercle.
a. The head articulates with the thoracic
vertebra facet
b. The tubercle articulates with the transverse
process of the vertebrae.

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D. Sternum (breastbone)
1. Located along the anterior midline of the
thoracic cage.
2. Its features include an upper manubrium,
middle body, and lower xiphoid process.

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 Fig 7.21 71
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7.9 Pectoral Girdle

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A. The pectoral girdle (shoulder girdle) makes an
incomplete ring that supports the upper limbs and
is composed of two scapulae and two clavicles.
B. The clavicles (collarbones) are elongated S-
shaped bones located at the base of the neck
that function to brace the scapulae.

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 Fig 7.22 74
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C. The scapulae (shoulder blades) are broad,
triangular bones on either side of the upper back.
1. A spine divides the posterior scapula into
unequal portions.
2. The spine ends with the acromion process that
articulates with clavicle.
3. The coracoid process provides attachments for
limb and chest muscles.
4. The glenoid cavity articulates with the head of
the humerus.

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 Fig 7.23 76
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7.10 Upper Limb

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A. Bones of the upper limb form the framework for
the arm, forearm, and hand. They also provide
for muscle attachments and they function as
levers to move limb parts.

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B. The humerus is a long bone extending from the
scapula to the elbow.
1. It articulates with the scapulae at its head, with
the radius at the capitulum, and with the ulna
at the trochlea.
2. Other features include the greater and lesser
tubercles, intertubercular sulcus, anatomical
and surgical necks, deltoid tuberosity, two
condyles (capitulum & trochanter) epicondyles,
coronoid fossa, and olecranon fossa.

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 Fig 7.24 80
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C. The radius is located on the thumb side of the
forearm, extending from the elbow to the wrist.
1. The disc-like head of the radius pivots with the
capitulum of the humerus.
2. Other features of the radius include the radial
tuberosity and styloid process.

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D. The ulna is the longer of the two bones making
up the forearm and has a trochlear notch that
articulates with the trochlea of the humerus.
1. Other features include the olecranon process,
coronoid process, head, and styloid process.
2. The distal end articulates with the wrist through
a fibrocartilage disc.
3. The ulna is on the thumb side in anatomical
position.

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 Fig 7.25 83
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E. The hand is made up of the wrist, palm, and
fingers.
1. The wrist of the hand is made up of eight
carpal bones bound into a carpus.
2. The framework of the hand is made up of five
metacarpal bones.
3. The fingers are composed of three phalanges
in each finger except the thumb, which lacks
the middle phalanx.

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 Fig 7.26 85
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7.11 Pelvic Girdle

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A. The pelvic girdle consists of the two hip (coxal or
innominate) bones; it supports the trunk of the
body on the lower limbs, provides attachments
for the lower limbs and protect the organs
within it.
B. The pelvis is the sacrum, coccyx and pelvic girdle
all together.

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 Fig 7.27 88
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C. Each hip bone is made up of three bones: ilium,
ischium, and pubis. These bones are fused in the
region of the acetabulum, the cuplike depression
that articulates with the head of the femur.
1. The ilium is the largest and upper-most portion
of the hip bone. Features include the iliac
crest, sacroiliac joint, and the anterior superior
iliac spine.

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Hip bone, cont.
2. The ischium forms the L-shaped portion that
supports weight during sitting. Features
include the ischial tuberosity and ischial spine.
3. The pubis constitutes the anterior portion of
the hip bones that join at the pubic symphysis.
Additional features include the pubic arch,
obturator foramen, and pubic brim.

90
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 Fig 7.28 91
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D. Differences between male and female skeletons

Table 7.3 92
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 Female Pelvis Male Pelvis

Fig 7.29 93
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7.12 Lower Limb

94
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A. The bones of the lower limb provide the
framework for the thigh, lower leg, and foot.
B. The femur, or thighbone, extends from the hip to
the knee and is the longest bone in the body.
1. Its head joins with the acetabulum; it also joins
with the tibia at the medial and lateral
condyles.
2. Other features of the femur include the fovea
capitis, neck, and greater and lesser
trochanters.
C. The patella (kneecap) is located in the tendon
that passes anteriorly over the knee.

95
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 Fig 7.30 96
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D. The tibia (shinbone) supports the weight of the
body and articulates with the femur (medial and
lateral condyles) and with the talus of the ankle.
1. Its anterior tibial tuberosity is the point of
attachment for the patellar ligament.
2. Other features include the medial malleolus
(inner ankle).
E. The fibula is a slender bone lying lateral to the
tibia.
1. It does not bear body weight.
2. Features include the head and a distal lateral
malleolus (outer ankle).

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 Fig 7.31 98
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F. The foot is made up of the ankle, the instep and
the toes.
1. The ankle (tarsus) is composed of seven tarsal
bones.
a. The talus articulates with the tibia and
fibula.
b. The calcaneus (heel bone) supports the
body weight.

99
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The foot, cont.
2. The instep (metatarsus) of the foot consists of
five metatarsal bones and provides the arches
of the foot.
3. Each toes is made up of three phalanges, with
the exception of the great toe, which lacks a
middle phalanx.

100
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 Fig 7.32 101
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 Fig 7.33 102
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7.13 Joints

103
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A. Joints (articulations) are the functional junctions
between bones.
1. Joints enable a wide variety of body
movements, bond parts of the body together,
make bone growth possible, and permit shape
changes during childbirth.
2. Joints can be classified according to the
degree of movement possible and can be
immovable (synarthrotic), slightly movable
(amphiarthrotic), or freely movable (diarthrotic).
3. Joints can also classified according to the type
of tissue that binds them together – fibrous,
cartilaginous, or synovial. (more commonly
used today)
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B. Fibrous joints are held close together by dense
connective tissue
1. Most are immovable - sutures of skull
2. A few are slightly movable - joint between the
distal tibia and fibula.

105
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 Fig 7.34 106
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C. Cartilaginous Joints are connected by either
hyaline or fibrocartilage.
1. Intervertebral disks between vertebrae help
absorb shock and are slightly movable.
2. Other examples of cartilaginous joints include
the pubic symphysis and the first rib with the
sternum.

107
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D. Synovial Joints
1. Most joints of the skeleton are synovial joints,
that allow free movement, which are more
complex than fibrous or cartilaginous joints.
2. The articular ends of bone in a synovial joint
are covered with hyaline cartilage.
3. A joint capsule consists of an outer layer of
dense connective tissue that joins the
periosteum, and an inner layer made up of
synovial membrane.
4. The synovial membrane secretes synovial fluid
that has the consistency of egg whites,
enabling it to lubricate joints.

108
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 Fig 7.35 109
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Synovial Joints, cont.
5. Some synovial joints contain shock absorbing
pads of fibrocartilage called menisci.
6. Some synovial joints have fluid-filled sacs
called bursae that aid in movement of tendons
as they slide over bone.

110
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 Fig 7.36 111
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Synovial Joints, cont.
7. Based on the shapes of their parts and the
movements they permit, synovial joints can be
classified as follows:
a. A ball-and-socket (spheroidal) joint consists
of a bone with a globular or egg-shaped
head articulating with the cup-shaped cavity
of another bone; a very wide range of
motion is possible (multiaxial); examples
include the shoulder and hip joints.

112
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Synovial Joint classification, cont.
b. A condylar joint (ellipsoidal) consists of an
ovoid condyle fitting into an elliptical cavity,
permitting a variety of motions; an example
is the joint between a metacarpal and a
phalange.
c. Plane joints or Gliding joints occur where
articulating surfaces are nearly flat or
slightly curved, allowing a back-and-forth
motion; the joints of the wrist and ankle, as
well as those between vertebrae, are gliding
joints.

113
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Synovial Joint classification, cont.
d. In a hinge joint, a convex surface fits into a
concave surface, as is found in the elbow
and phalange joints; movement is in one
plane only (uniaxial).
e. In a pivot joint (trochoid), a cylindrical
surface rotates within a ring of bone and
fibrous tissue; examples include the joint
between the proximal ends of the radius
and ulna and between the dens of the axis
and the atlas.

114
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Synovial Joint classification, cont.
f. A saddle joint (sellar) forms where
articulating surfaces have both concave
and convex areas, permits movements in
two planes (biaxial); the joint between the
trapezium and the metacarpal of the thumb
is of this type.

115
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 Fig 7.37 116
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 Table 7.4 117
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E. Types of joint movements
1. When a muscle contracts, its fibers pull its
movable end (insertion) toward its stationary
end (origin), causing movement at a joint.
2. Terms to describe synovial movements
a. Flexion – bending parts so that the angle
between decreases
b. Extension – straightening parts so that the
angle increases
c. Dorsiflexion – ankle movement of bringing
the foot closer to the shin
d. Plantar flexion – ankle movement to point
the toes

118
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Types of joint movements, cont.
e. Hyperextension – extend beyond
anatomical position
f. Abduction – move away from the midline
g. Lateral flexion – bending head, neck, or
trunk to the side
h. Adduction – move toward the midline

119
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 Fig 7.38 120
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Types of joint movements, cont.
i. Rotation – move around an axis
j. Circumduction – end of part follows a
circular path
k. Pronation – rotation of forearm so that the
palm is downward or facing the posterior
l. Supination – rotation of forearm so that the
palm is upward or facing the anterior

121
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 Fig 7.39 122
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Types of joint movements, cont.
m. Eversion – turn sole of foot outward
n. Inversion – turn sole of foot inward
o. Retraction – move a part backward
p. Protraction – move a part forward
q. Elevation – raise a part
r. Depression – lower a part

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 Fig 7.40 124
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 THE END

125
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