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Learning

A major factor to make all

individuals different.
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learning is a key process in human behavior,

Learning:
Knowledge or skill acquired by instruction or study
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Learning is defined as any relatively permanent change

in behavior as result of observation and experience…
• It is a process of acquiring modifications in existing
knowledge, skills, habits, or tendencies through
experience, practice, or exercise. Learning includes
associative processes.
• Learning can be by birth i. e inherited and it can also be
learnt.
 Types Of Learning
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1. Perpetual learning – is an ability to learn to recognize

the stimuli that you have seen before.
2. Stimulus response learning – is an ability to perform a
particular behavior when a certain stimulus is present.
3. Observational learning – it is by watching and imitating
other people
 Theories of learning
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1. Classical conditioning – given by Ivan Pavlov.

• The theory has 4 main parts –
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned stimulus
• Conditioned response
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• The study was conducted by seeing the reaction of dog when stimuli
is there.
• Meat is an unconditioned stimulus which makes the dog react in a
specific way.
• The reaction which takes place is unconditioned response.
• The bell is an artificial stimulus or conditioned stimulus.
• Lastly there is a conditioned response and that’s the behavior of the
dog i.e its salivation to the ringing of bell.
 Conclusion
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Conditioned response involves building up of an association between a

conditioned stimulus (ringing of bell) and unconditioned stimulus
(meat) and when there are two stimuli one compels and the other is
neutral, the one being neutral becomes conditioned stimuli and
hence takes the properties of unconditioned stimulus.
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• Given by B.F. Skinner

• It explains more complex behavior
• He argues that the behavior is a function of its consequences.
• People learn to behave in a certain manner to get something and avoid
something when they don’t want something.
• It is a voluntary or learned behavior.
• This theory is also known reinforcement theory
• It is based on two principles-
1. Behavior which results in positive rewards tends to be repeated
2. Behavior is based upon consequences. It can be predicted and
controlled according to the consequences .
 Types of reinforcement
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1. Positive reinforcement – it is a response followed by something

pleasant.
• It is a reward for desired behavior so that it increases the
probability of occurrence.
• Examples – money, incentives, appraisal, recognition, employees
consideration in decision-making etc.
Negative reinforcement – it is a response followed by something
unpleasant.
• This is to avoid or escape certain behavior.
• It is an avoidance learning
• Examples – termination from job, criticism etc.
 Extinction
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• This is applied to reduce the undesirable behavior.

• If rewards are removed such behavior tends to become less
frequent and eventually stops occurring.
• Punishment
• It is most controversial behavior modification method.
• It is unpleasant consequence contingent upon
occurrence of an undesirable behavior.
• Its consequences may be positive or negative.
• Negative behavior after punishment can be reduced if
certain things are kept in mind like :-
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• Praise in public, punish in private.

• Apply punishment before the undesirable behavior has been
strongly reinforced.
• Focus should be behavior and not the person.
• Punishment should be in proportion to the undesired behavior so
that it does not result in hostility.
 Schedules of Reinforcement
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The two major types of reinforcement schedules are:

1) Continuous Schedule: In this reinforcement
schedule the desired behavior is reinforced each &
every time it is demonstrated.

2) Intermittent Schedule: In this type of

reinforcement schedule, not every instance of the
desirable behavior is reinforced, but reinforcement
is given often enough to make the behavior worth
repeating.
 Classification of Intermittent Schedules
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An intermittent reinforcement can be of two types:

1) Ratio Schedules depend on how many responses the subject
makes.
The individual is reinforced after giving a certain number of
specific types of behavior.
2) Interval Schedules depend on how much time has passed
since the previous reinforcement.
With interval schedules, the individual is reinforced on the
first appropriate behavior after a particular time has elapsed.
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A reinforcement can also be classified as fixed or variable.

 Fixed-interval type :
Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals. The critical
variable is time & it is held constant.
 Variable-interval type:
Rewards are distributed over time so that reinforcements are
unpredictable.
 Fixed-ratio type:
A reward is initiated, after a constant number of responses are
given
 Variable-ratio type:
Reward varies relative to the behavior of the individual.
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Reinforcement Nature of Effect on Behavior Example

Schedule Reinforcement
Continuous Reward given after Fast learning of Compliments
each desired behavior. new behavior but
rapid extinction.

Fixed-interval Rewards given at fixed Average & Weekly paychecks

time intervals. irregular
performance with
rapid extinction.
Variable-interval Rewards given at Moderately high & Pop quizzes
variable time intervals. stable
performance with
slow extinction.
Fixed-ratio Rewards given at High & stable Piece-rate pay
fixed amounts of performance
output. attained quickly
but also with rapid
extinction.
Variable-ratio Rewards given at Very high Commissioned sales
variable amounts of performance with
output. slow extinction.
 Social learning Amity Business School

• People learn by observing

• Through their experiences
• This theory acknowledges the existence of observation and
importance of perception in learning.
• People get influences from various sources.
• Examples – family, friends, reference groups, aspiring groups etc.
• Following are the training programs to improve
employees learning :-
1. Attention process – people learn from a model only when
they recognize and pay attention to its critical features.
• Features- attractive, repeatedly available, important to
us.
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Retention process – model’s influence depends upon how

well you remember their action after they are no longer
available.
3. Motor reproduction process – after seeing the behavior
watching must be converted into doing.
4. Reinforcement process- individuals can be reinforced to
repeat their behavior only if they are rewarded.
 Cognitive theory
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• Two key assumptions underlie in cognitive approach:

1. that the memory system is an active organized
processor of information and
2. that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning.
• Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-
based learning.
• Cognitivists consider how human memory works to
promote learning
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• Cognitive skills are underlying mental abilities and are

not the same as the academic knowledge acquired in the
classroom.
• Cognitive skills can change and improve.
• Malfunctioning cognitive skills make learning difficult and
frustrating.
• Specific cognitive skills testing is the best way to identify
which cognitive skills are the cause of a learning problem
and need strengthening.
• With the right information and training, every child can
experience learning that is easy, fast, and fun.
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• The cognitive paradigm essentially argues

that the “black box” of the mind should be
opened and understood. The learner is
viewed as an information processor (like a
computer).
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Therefore we should keep

learning as
“ WE LEARN THE WHOLE
LIFE”