INTRODUCTION

X- Rays:
 Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen(1845-1923)
He was professor of Experimental physics at
wuerzburing (Munich) University
The date of the discovery is 8th November 1895
Gamma Rays:
Marie Curie was born in warsaw on November
7th 1867
Date of discovery is 1910
PRINCIPLE OF RT
SHADOW FORMATION DUE TO
DIFFERENTIAL ABSORPTION.

Marie Curie

Roentgen
TWO TYPES OF SOURCE
ELECTRO MAGNETIC SOURCE
X-RAY
GAMMA RAY ()
PARTICULAR
β RAY,  RAY,  RAY.
RADIATION SOURCE
RADIATION DUE TO EXTERNAL ENERGY
EX: X-RAY

RADIOACTIVE SOURCE
IT IS OTHERWISE CALLED RADIOACTIVE
ELEMENT SOURCE.
ALWAYS EMITS RADIATION.
EX :  RAY
 BASIC CONCEPT
VELOCITY
VELOCITY OF RADIATON = 3X10 10 CM/SEC

ATOM
SMALLEST PART IN THE ELEMENT

MOLECULE
TWO OR MORE THAN TWO ATOMS FORMS AN
MOLECULE

COMPOUND
MORE THAN TWO MOLECULES.
BASIC FUNDAMENTALS OF AN ATOM

PROTON
PROTON HAVING POSITIVE CHARGE IS
FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS OF THE ATOM

ELECTRON
ELECTRON REVOLVE AROUND THE
NUCLEUS AND HAVE NEGATIVE CHARGE.

NEUTRON
NEUTRON HAVING ZERO CHARGE IS
ALSO FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS.
THEATOMIC NUMBER “Z”= THE
NUMBER OF PROTONS IN A NUCLEUS

MASSNUMBER “A” = NUMBER OF

PROTONS AND NEUTRONS
ISOTOPES

 ATOM OF THE ELEMENT CAN POSSES

SAME ATOMIC NUMBER(z) BUT
DIFFERENT MASS NUMBER (A).

 ISOTOPESEMITTING RADIATIONS
REFERS TO RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES.
 GAMMA RADIATION

WHEN NEUTRON IS ADDED TO AN ATOM,

NEUTRON BOMBARDMENT TAKES PLACE
AND ALSO IT EMIT GAMMARAYS.
IRIDIUM 192
Ir192 – (77 P +115 N)

COBALT 60

Co60 – (27 P + 33 N)
IONIZATION

THE PROCESS IN WHICH ELECTRONS ARE

KNOCKED OFF OR REMOVED FROM AN
ATOM.

EXCITATION

PROCESS IN WHICH ELECTRONS ARE

RAISED FROM INNER ORBIT TO THE OUTER
ORBIT.
X Ray Machine
X Ray sources

cathode

X-RAY
FACTOR OF CONVERSION
% OF X-RAY= 1.4 x Z x V x 10-7
 USEFUL THICKNESS
 X- RAY ->BELOW 10 MM
  -RAY -> IRIDIUM 192  10MM TO 60 MM
COBALT 60  50MM TO 200MM
TYPES OF CAMERA

 PORTABLE – ONE MAN

HANDLING
UPTO 20 Kg

 MOBILE – TROLLEY MOUNTED

50 Kg TO 500 Kg

 FIXED -- > 500 Kg

DRIVING UNIT
CAMERA
RADIOGRAPHY SETUP
Iridium 192
Cobalt 60
HALF LIFE PERIOD
Half life of radioisotopes used in
industrial radiography :

Thulium 170 128 days

Ytterbium 169 32 days
Iridium 192 75 days
Cesium 137 30 years
Cobalt 60 5.27 years
Sodium 24 14.9 hours
Selenium 75 119.8 days
 DECAY LAW

A = A0e-λ T
WHERE,

A -> PRESENT ACTIVITY

A0-> INITIAL ACTIVITY
λ -> DECAY CONSTANT
T ->TIME
RADIATION OUT PUT AT ONE
METER/CURIE
1 meter
Ir192 – 1 Ci 0.5 R/hr
1 hour
(or) 500mR/hr
1 meter
Co60 – 1 Ci 1.3R/hr
1 hour
(or) 1300mR/hr
Safe Distance

 The distance between source and person

should maintain to avoid overdose
 Using Inverse Square Law
RADIATION SYMBOL
Inverse Square law
The intensity of radiation varies inversely with the square
of the distance from the source.
 The inverse square law is expressed as
I1D12 = I2 D22
where,
I 1 =radiation intensity at distance D 1
I 2 = radiation intensity at distance D 2

Radiation intensity, produced by a radioisotope at 1 meter is,

Ci X RHM in Roentgen / hr.
 RADIATION ATTENUATION
I = I0 e - t

WHERE,
I = PRESENT INTENSITY
I0 = INITIAL INTENSITY
E = EXPONENTIAL
= ABSORPTION CO-EFFICIENT OF A
MATERIAL
t =JOB THICKNESS
HVTmm Steel LeaD Uranium Concrete
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
100 kev 1.2 0.25 16
200 kev 3.8 0.42 26
300 kev 6.5 1.7 30
Ir 192 12.5 4.8 3 44
Co 60 20 12.5 7 66

 
 GEOMETRICAL UNSHARPNESS (Ug)
 Unsharpness may produce gradual change
in density with complete loss of image
outline.
 Unsharpness in a radiograph can be
defined as the blurring of image edges, with
a resultant loss of definition of fine cracks,
image detail and penetrameter detail.
In practice, Ug can never be zero. Film
unsharpness is also recorded. Ug can only
be minimized by controlling exposure setup
The main causes of unsharpness
CALCULATION FOR Ug

Ug = F X T / ( SFD -T )

or, SFD = { ( F X T ) / Ug } + T ,
the required source to film distance to limit a
certain Ug.

where,
Ug = unsharpness [ width of the
shadow zone ].
F = effective source size.
T = thickness [ height ] of the object.
SFD = source to film distance.
 RECOMMENDED Ug VALUES
• MATERIAL THICK • MAXIMUM Ug

UPTO 50 MM 0.5
50 -75 MM 0.75
75 -100 MM 1.0
ABOVE 100MM 1.7
VARIOUS FACTOR FOR CONTROLLING Ug

 SOURCE SIZE

 SOURCE TO FILM DISTANCE

 SOURCE TO OBJECT DISTANCE

 ALLIGNMENT OF RADIATION BEAM WITH

RESPECT TO THE PLANE OF THE OBJECT AND
FILM.
 STRUCTURE OF FILM
METALLIC FOIL SCREEN

CARD BOARD

LEAD SCREEN (FRONT)

FILM

LEAD SCREEN (BACK)

CARD BOARD
METALLICFOIL SCREEN
TYPES OF SCREEN

METALLIC SCREEN

FLUORESCENT SCREEN
SCREEN

 FILTERS LOW ENERGY

 QUALITY WILL BE HIGH

 INTENSIFICATION PURPOSE

 TO AVOID BACK SCATTERING

AVAILABILITY OF FILM
TYPES OF FILM

SLOW FILM
MEDIUM FILM
FAST FILM
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

Film A – D7
Film B – D4
Film C – D2
 FILM DENSITY
 FILM ON EXPOSURE TO RADIATION AND
PROCESSING PRODUCES BLACK DEPOSITS OF
SILVER. THIS BLACKENING OF THE FILM IS
CALLED “OPTICAL DENSITY”.

 ITIS DENOTED BY D.
 DENSITY MEARSURING DEVICE
1)DENSITOMETER
2)DENSITOSTRIP
 OPTICAL DENSITY
 OPTICAL DENSITY D = log10 LO /Lt

WHERE,
LO→INTENSITY OF INCIDENT LIGHT
Lt → INTENSITY OF TRANSMITTED
LIGHT
STANDARDS DENSITY LEVEL
 X-Rays Film Density 1.8 to 4
 Gamma Rays Density 2 to 4
 Preferable Density level 2.3 to 2.8
FACTORS WHICH CONTROL THE OPTICAL
DENSITY
 TYPE OF FILM

 ENERGY OF RADIATION

 AMOUNT OF EXPOSURE

 PROCESSING CONDITION
 FILM FACTOR
THE AMOUNT OF EXPOSURE OF A GIVEN
RADIATION ENERGY REQUIRED ON A FILM TO
PRODUCE A GIVEN FILM DENSITY.

Ir 192 D2 9.5 R
D4 4.0R
D7 1.2R

Co 60 D2 19.6R
D4 8.0R
D7 2.5R
FILM PROCESSING
 DEVELOPER

 STOP BATH

 FIXER

 WASHING

 REMOVING WATER MARKS

 DRYING
DEVELOPER
HYDRoclorid + WATER
18–230 C
DEVELOPING TIME -> 5 TO 8 MINS

18˚c 20˚c 22˚c 24˚c 26˚c 28˚c 30˚c

6 min 5 min 4 min 3.5 min 3 min 2.5 min 2 min

STOP BATH
ACETIC ACID + WATER
TO REMOVE THE DEVELOPER CHEMICAL
FURTHER DEVELOPMENT IS STOPPED
TIME LIMIT IS 1 TO 2 MTS
FIXER
CONSISTS OF SODIUM THIO SULPHATE
UNWANTED SILVER IS REMOVED
TIME LIMIT IS 10 TO 15 MTS
FIXATION TIME / CLEARING TIME
WASHING
USING RUNNING WATER
TIME LIMIT IS 15 MTS
TO REMOVE THE TRACES OF FIXING
CHEMICALS
IMPROPERLY WASHED FILMS BECOME
BROWN WITH AGE.
 REMOVING WATER MARKS

Water droplets remaining on the films

after washing can be surface removed
by dipping the films in wetting agent
solution before drying.
 DRYING

Films are finally dried uniformly by

evaporation or by circulating hot air in
a temperature controlled drying cabinet.
Image quality indicators
[ IQI]
ASTM HOLE/PLAQUE TYPE PENETRAMETER
ASTM WIRE PENETRAMETER
DIN TYPE PENETRAMETER
ASTM HOLE TYPE PENETROMETER

Quality level Equivalent sensitivity

1 - 1T .7 %
1 - 2T 1%
2 - 1T 1.4 %
2 - 2T 2 % [ standard
PENETROMETERS
PENETRAMETER
PLACEMENT
IQI Selection table as per ASME V / Art 2.
Weld Thk inch Source side Film side
Upto .25 12 10
Over .25 thr .375 15 12
Over .375 thr .50 17 15
Over .5 thr .75 20 17
Over .75 thr 1.00 25 20
Over 1.00 thr 1.50 30 25
Over 1.50 thr 2.00 35 30
Over 2.00 thr 2.50 40 35
Over 2.50 thr 4.00 50 40
Over 4.00 thr 6.00 60 50
Over 6.00 thr 8.00 80 60
Essential hole 2T
Standard IQI thk / Nos : ASME V / SA 1025
5 7 10 12 15 17
20 25 30 35 40 45
50 60 70 80 100 120
140 160 200 240 280
Job thickness in inches X 20
Job thickness in mm X 0.8

sensitivity equation
S =n √ min.visible hole)/ 2
Where n=No.of sensitivity 2% As per
ASME
Wire Penetrameters
ASTM wire penetrameters

The diameter ratio between two successive wires is 1 : 1.25

ASTM wire diameter in Inches :
Set A Set B Set C Set D
1- .0032 6 - .010 11 - .032 16 - .100
2 - .004 7 - .013 12 - .040 17 - .126
3 - .005 8 - .016 13 - .050 18 - .160
4 - .0063 9 - .020 14 - .063 19 - .200
5 - .008 10 - .025 15 - .080 20 - .250
6 - .010 11 - .032 16 - .100 21 - .320
 IQI SELECTION

Selection of wire = 2 /100*JT

% OF SENSITIVITY

min visible wire dia

S = ------------------------------*100
object thickness
DIN wire penetrameters
 DIN SETS
Wire Diameter in (mm)

S.No 1-ISO-7 6-ISO-12 10-ISO-16

1 3.2 1 0.4
2 2.5 0.8 0.32
3 2.0 0.63 0.25
4 1.6 0.5 0.2
5 1.25 0.4 0.16
6 1.0 0.32 0.13
7 0.8 0.25 0.1

•10 ISO 16 for 5 to 20 mm thickness.

• 6 ISO 12 20 to 50 mm.
• 1 ISO 7 40 to 160 mm.
IQI SELECTION

% wire = 2 /100*JT
% OF SENSITIVITY

min visible wire dia

S = ------------------------------*100
object thickness
TECHNIQUES IN RADIOGRAPHY

 SINGLE
WALL SINGLE IMAGE
ECCENTRIC
PANAROMIC

 DOUBLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE

Touching shot

 DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE

Super impose
Elliptical Shot
EXCENTRIC
PANAROMIC
DOUBLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE
DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE
DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE
CALCULATION FOR EXPOSURE
TIME
Exposure equation :

thk / hvt
FF x 2 x SFD 2 x 60
Exp Time = ----------------------------------
[ in minutes ] Ci x RHM x 100 2

FF = film factor of the film for a target

density.
thk = thickness to be radiographed.
hvt = half value thickness of the material.
SFD= source to film distance in cm.
Ci = source strength [ curie ] of the
isotope.
RHM= radiation out put at 1 meter / curie.
100= 1 meter = 100 cm.
60 = hour  minute.
RADIATION DETECTORS AND MONITORS
 IONIZATION CHAMBER( POCKET
DOSIMETER)

 SERVEYMETER

 FILMBADGE
 DOSIMETER
FILM BADGE
POCKET DOSIMETER
RADIATION SURVEY
METER
RADIATION BANKING CONCEPT
D = 5(N-18)

WHERE,

N → PERSON’S AGE IN YEARS

RADIATION BIOLOGICAL EFFECT

 SOMATIC EFFECT

 GENETIC EFFECT
ACUTE DOSE
 LARGE DOSE IN A SHORT PERIOD.

CHRONIC DOSE
 DOSE RECEIVED FOR A LONG PERIOD.
BARC Bhaba Atomic Research Centre
BRIT Board of Radiation & Isotope
Technology
ICRP International Commission for
Radiological Protection
REM Roentgen Equivalent Men
2000 milli Rem /year
200 milli Rem /month
40 milli Rem /week
5 milli Rem /day
1 milli Rem /1 hour
DOSE OF RADIATION

 MILD DOSE
25 REM TO 50 REM

 MODERATE DOSE
50 REM TO 200 REM

 MEDIAN LETHAL DOSE

200 REM TO 600 REM

 LETHAL DOSE
600 REM TO 800 REM
ADVANTAGES
 PERMANENT RECORD

 MOBILITY

 VOLUMETRIC NDT

 NO
NEED OF POWER SUPPLY FOR GAMMA
RAYS
DISADVANTAGES

 HAZARDOUS TO HUMAN BODY

 DEPTHOF THE DEFECT CANNOT

BE FOUND

 TIMECONSUMING & COST

EFFECTIVE
ASME SEC V
 NDT procedure
 Article 2RT (2 to 4) for Gamma rays,
(4 to 18) X rays
 Article 4UT for fabrication (Normal
probe)
 Article 5UT for welding (Angle probe)
 Article 6 LPT
 Article 7 MPT
Radiographic Film image showing weld
defect

Transverse crack Slag Inclusion

 Porosity

Root piping
 Herring bone porosity
Cluster porosity
Interpass slag inclusions Elongated slag lines
 Root Defects

Lack of root fusion Lack of root Penetration

Lack of root penetration Lack of root fusion
Excess cap reinforcement Incomplete filled groove