Nuclear Radiation Detectors

Introduction
• Radio-isotopes (isotopes of elements with
unstable atomic nuclei) emit radiation which
can be detected by suitably located detectors.
• The proportion of radioactive atoms in the
volume of material perceived by the detector
can thus be determined by the measurement
of the intensity of such radiation.
 Preparation
• In one method, a pure but radioactive form of the
substance to be determined is mixed with the
sample in known amount. After equilibrium, a
fraction of the component of interest is isolated and
the analysis is then based upon the activity of this
isolated fraction.
• Alternatively, activity is induced in one or more
elements of the sample by irradiation with suitable
particles. The measurement of this activity gives
information about the element of interest.
 Time Decay of Radio isotopes
Half life/Half period:
• The half-period of a radioactive isotope is the time required for
half of the initial stock of atoms to decay.
• Thus, after one half-period has elapsed, the total activity of any
single radioactive isotope will have fallen to half its initial value;
• After two periods, the activity will be one-quarter its initial value
and so on. After 6.6 half-periods, the activity will be 1% of the
initial activity.
• Decay is a random process which follows an exponential curve.
(Here λ is the decay constant for a particular radio-isotope)
 Units of radio activity
• The unit of radioactivity is curie. This was originally
defined to represent the disintegration rate of one gram
of radium.
• It is used as the standard unit of measurement for the
activity of any substance, regardless of whether the
emission is alpha or beta particles, or X or gamma
radiation.
• the curie is defined as an activity of 3.7 × 1010
disintegration. The curie represents a very high activity.
Therefore, smaller units such as millicurie or micro-curie
are generally used.
 Energy
• Energy: The basic unit used to describe the
energy of a radiation particle or photon is the
electron volt (eV).
• An electron volt is equal to the amount of energy
gained by an electron passing through a potential
difference of one volt. The energy of the
radiation emitted is a characteristic of the
radionuclide.
 Particles Emitted in Radioactive Decay
• The theory of atomic structure proves that some
elements are naturally unstable and exhibit
natural radioactivity.
• On the other hand, elements can be made
radioactive by bombarding them by high-energy
charged particles on neutrons, which are
produced by either a cyclotron or a nuclear
reactor respectively.
• Radioactive emissions: Alpha, Beta and Gamma
rays.
 Radio active emissions
• Alpha emissions: Alpha particles are composed of
two protons and two neutrons. They are least
penetrating and can be stopped or absorbed by
air. They are most harmful to the human tissue.
• Beta emissions: These are positively or negatively
charged and are high-speed particles originating
in the nucleus. They are not as harmful to tissue
as alpha particles, because they are less ionising,
but are much more harmful than gamma rays.
 Radio active emissions
• Gamma emissions:
Emissions like X-rays constitute electromagnetic
radiation that travels at the speed of light. They
differ from X-rays only in their origin. X-ray
originates in the orbital electrons of an atom.
Gamma rays originate in the nucleus. They are due
to an unstable nucleus. X-rays and gamma rays are
also called ‘photons’ or packets of energy. As they
have no mass, they have the greatest penetrating
capability. Gamma rays are of primary interest in
radiochemical methods of analysis.
 Radio active emissions
• Alpha emission is characteristic of the heavier radioactive elements
such as thorium, uranium, etc. The energy of alpha particles is
generally high and lies in the range 2–10 MeV (million electron volt).
• Their penetrating power is low and are completely stopped by foils
and solid materials like aluminium. Due to larger ionising power of
alpha particles, they can be distinguished from beta and gamma
radiations on the basis of pulse amplitude they produce on a
detector.
• Beta emission consists of a very energetic electron or positron
(beta particles that carry a unit positive charge). Their penetration
power is substantially greater than alpha particles, and have energy
range 0–3 MeV.
• Gamma rays are high-energy photons having high penetrating and
low ionising power.
 Interaction of radiation with matter
• Beta particles interact primarily with the electrons in the
material through which they pasts. The absorption depends
mainly upon the number of electrons in their path. The
molecules of the matter may be dissociated, excited or ionised.
However, it is the ionisation which is of primary importance in
the detection of beta particles.
• Alpha particles have relatively large mass and higher charge,
the specific ionisation produced by them is much larger than for
beta particles.
• Upon interaction with matter, gamma rays ionise energy by
three modes.
• The photoelectric effect transfers all the energy of the gamma
ray to an electron in an inner orbit of an atom of the absorber.
This involves ejection of a single electron from the target atom.
This effect predominates a low gamma energies and with target
atoms having a high atomic number.
 Interaction of radiation with matter
• The Compton Effect occurs when a gamma ray and an
electron make an elastic collision. The gamma energy is
shared with the electron and another gamma ray of
lower energy is produced which travels in a different
direction. The Compton effect is responsible for the
absorption of relatively energetic gamma rays.
• When a high-energy gamma ray is annihilated following
interaction with the nucleus of a heavy atom, pair
production of a positron and an electron results.
• Pair production becomes predominant at the higher
gamma-ray energies and in absorbers with a high
atomic number. The number of ion pairs per centimetre
of travel is called specific ionisation.
 Nuclear Radiation Detectors
• Ionisation Chamber
• Geiger-Muller Counter
• Proportional Counter
• Scintillation Counter
• Semi conductor detector
 Radiation Detectors
Ionisation Chamber:
• The fact that the interaction of radioactivity with
matter gives rise to ionisation makes it possible to
detect and measure the radiation.
• When an atom is ionised, it forms an ion pair. If the
electrons are attracted towards a positively charged
electrode and the positive ions to a negatively charged
electrode, a current would flow in an external circuit.
• The magnitude of the current would be proportional
to the amount of radioactivity present between the
electrodes. This is the principle of the ionising
chamber.
 Ionisation Chamber
• An ionisation chamber consists of a chamber which is gas filled
and is provided with two electrodes. A material having a very high
insulation resistance, such as polytetrafluoroethylene is used as
the insulation between the inner and outer electrodes of the ion
chamber.
• A potential difference of a few hundred volts is applied between
the two electrodes. The radioactive source is placed inside or very
near to the chamber. The charged particles moving through the
gas undergo inelastic collisions to form ion pairs.
• The voltage placed across the electrodes is sufficiently high to
collect all the ion pairs.
• The chamber current will then be proportional to the amount of
radioactivity in the sample. lionisation chambers are operated
either in the counting mode, in which they respond separately to
each ionising current, or in an integrating mode involving
collection of ionisation current over a relatively long period.
Ionisation Chamber
 Ionisation Chamber
• The current is usually of the order of 10−10A or less. It is measured
using a very high input impedance voltmeter, which has a MOSFET in
the input stage.
• The current is indicated on a moving coil type ammeter. Alternatively,
null method can also be used. In this method, the change in voltage
produced across a capacitor by the ionising current is counterbalanced
by an equal and opposite voltage supplied from a potentiometer.
• A potentiometric recorder of the self-balancing type can be used to
record the signal.
• The magnitude of the voltage signal produced can be estimated from
the fact that the charge associated with the 100,000 ion pairs
produced by a single alpha particle traversing approximately 1 cm in
air would be around 3 × 10−14 coulomb. If this average charge is made
to pass through a resistance of 3 × 1010 Ω in 1 s, a difference of
potential of approximately 1 mV would develop across the high
resistance.
 Geiger-Muller Counter
• The Geiger counter is commonly called GM tube. This tube
consists of a metal cylinder which acts as a cathode and is
about 1–2 cm in diameter.
• It has an axial insulated wire working as an anode and is
capable of being maintained at a high positive potential of the
order of 800–2,500 V.
• This assembly is placed in a tubular glass envelope containing
a gas or mixture of gases, which is easily ionisable.
• The envelope is gas-tight and is typically filled to a pressure of
80 mm of argon gas and 20 mm of alcohol. Alcohol, butane or
bromine acts as a quenching gas and argon as the ionising gas.
• The tube contains a window of thin mica or other suitable
material, which permits effective passage of beta and gamma
radiation, but not of alpha radiation.
 Geiger-Muller counter

• As the gas is ionised in the counting tube, migration of ions takes

place towards the appropriate electrodes under the voltage gradient.
They soon acquire sufficient velocity, cause further ionisation and give
rise to an avalanche of electrons travelling towards the central anode.
 Geiger-Muller Counter
• The process, in fact, produces a continuous
discharge, which fills the whole active volume of
the counter in less than a micro-second.
• Each discharge builds up to a constant pulse of 1–
10 V.
• This pulse amplitude is sufficient to operate a rate
meter or scale without using any amplifier.
 Geiger-Muller Counter
• The variation of the count rate recorded by a typical Geiger
counter, when the polarizing voltage is altered.
• The tube works in the voltage range exhibited by the plateau.
Below the starting voltage, no counts are recorded.
• Between the starting voltage and beginning of the plateau, the
voltage is too low to produce constant pulse size.
• Also, beyond the plateau the count rate increases, because of
breakdown and spurious discharges through the tube.
 Geiger-Muller Counter (Dead Time)
• Positive ions produced by ionisation, being much heavier,
have much lower mobilities than electrons.
• Therefore, they move only a very short distance towards
the cathode in the time interval required for the electrons
to cross the space between electrodes.
• This travel time may be several hundred micro-seconds and
can vary from counter to counter.
• During this period, the positive ions form a sheath around
the anode wire, which effectively lowers the potential
gradient to a point where the counter becomes insensitive
to the entry of fresh ionising particles.
• This is called dead time of the counter.
 Geiger-Muller Counter (Dead Time)
• Use of quenching circuit is preferred because it
offers two advantages: reduction of the counter
dead time and prolongation of lifetime of the
counter by reducing the number of organic
molecules dissociated in each discharge.
• In a GM tube containing ethyl alcohols as a
quenching agent, the life of these tubes is limited
to perhaps 108 to 1010 counts.
 Proportional Counter
• The proportional counter is an ionisation
chamber that is operated at voltages beyond the
ordinary ionisation chamber region, but below
that of the Geiger region.
• These counters are called proportional counter,
because the output pulse from the chamber
stalls to increase with the increase in the electric
field strength at the central electrode, but is still
proportional to the initial ionisation.
• In these counters, the pulse produced is
amplified by a factor of 1,000 or more.
 Proportional Counter
• The radius of cathode is about 1 cm and that of
anode 0.001 cm, with a polarising voltage of the
order of 1000 V.
• The output pulse is generally of a few millivolts and
therefore, requires amplification before the signal
can be given to a scaler for counting.
• In the continuous gas-flow type counters, an argon-
methane mixture flows at atmospheric pressure
from compressed gas tank at a rate of 200 ml/min.
• Counter life is, therefore, unlimited as the filling gas
gets constantly replenished.
 Proportional Counter
• The pre-amplifier is a voltage follower, which provides high
input impedance.
• This is followed by a low-noise linear amplifier having a very
stable gain in the range of 500–1000.
• In order to avoid attenuation and distortion of pulses due
to capacitance of the long connecting cables, the
preamplifier should be placed very near to the detector.
 Proportional Counter
• In proportional counter, different particles would yield output
pulses of amplitude proportional to the isotope energy.
• By employing a pulse-height analyser, which counts a pulse
only if its amplitude falls within certain specific limits, a
proportional counter can be made to respond to beta rays or
X-ray frequencies etc.
• In single-channel pulse-height analysers, provision is made
for lower and upper energy discrimination, so that only
pulses having amplitudes between the levels are passed.
• The voltage between the discriminating settings is called
window, gate or width. The scaling unit counts down the
pulses from the analyser, so that they are digitally displayed.
Range of operation of different types of counters
 Scintillation Counter
• Scintillation is the process of turning radioactive energy
(e.g. the energy associated with a beta particle) into light
using a ‘scintillator’.
• A scintillator, thus, is a substance which produces minute
flashes of light in the visible or near ultraviolet range,
when it absorbs ionising radiation.
• In such cases, the number of fluorescent photons is
proportional to the energy of the radioactive particle.
• The flashes occur due to the recombination and de-
excitation of ions and excited atoms produced along the
path of the radiation.
• The light flashes are of very short duration and are
detected by using a photomultiplier tube.
 Scintillation Counter
• A scintillator along with the photomultiplier tube is known as a
scintillation counter. The following are the two types of
scintillators:
i) Liquid Scintillators
ii) Solids Scintillators
i) Liquid Scintillators:
• These are used for low energy β− emitters such as 14C, 35S and 3He.
• The radioactive material is mixed into a scintillation fluid referred
to as cocktail.
• Liquid scintillators are POP, POPOP.
• Liquid scintillation fluids are organic molecules dissolved in an
organic solvent.
• The mixture is placed between two photomultipliers which record
the light produced.
 Liquid Scintillation Counter

A count is recorded only when a pulse of light is

simultaneously detected by both PMTs, thus
acting as a coincidence counter. This helps to
reduce back ground noise.
 Solid Scintillation Counter
• Solid Scintillators: These are used for high-energy
β− emitters such as 203Hg, 59Fe, 65Zn and 109Cd.
• The most commonly used solid scintillator is NaI
(Sodium Iodide).
• Here, the radioactive sample is placed in a well
cut out of a crystal, whereas the photomultiplier
tube is mounted on one face of the crystal.
• Each β− particle produces several thousand
photons of light (wavelength: 400 nm) as it
passes through the crystal, which are counted.
Solid Scintillation Counter
 Semiconductor Detectors
• A great deal of development work has been done on
semiconductor radiation detectors.
• These detectors can be made very small arid robust,
silicon and germanium crystals have been employed
mainly for counting alpha and beta particles.
• They function in a manner similar to that of the gas
ionisation chamber.
• On absorption of radiation in the crystal, electrons and
positive holes are formed, which move towards
opposite electrodes under the influence of applied
potential.
• The resulting current is proportional to the energy of
the ionising radiation.
 X-Ray Spectroscopy
• X-rays are the short-wavelength, high-energy
electromagnetic radiation associated with electronic
transitions in atoms. The generation of X-rays and the
interactions of X-rays with matter have numerous
consequences of chemical importance.
• Absorption of X-rays gives information about the
absorbing material just as in other regions of the
spectrum.
• Fluorescence emission of X-rays enables to identify and
measure heavy elements in the presence of each other
and in any matrix.
• Diffraction of X-rays enables analysis of crystalline
materials with a high degree of specificity and accuracy.
 X-Ray Spectrum
• The most commonly used device for obtaining X-radiation is X-ray
tubes. The conventional tube consists of a cathode (electron
emitter) and an anode (target).
• Electrons from the cathode are accelerated by a high voltage (say
40 kV) applied to the target which is usually a heavy metal like
molybdenum. The electrons, upon impact on the anode, produce
a broad range X-ray spectrum.
• It is due to the deceleration of the impinging electrons by
successive collisions with the atoms of the target material. It has
been observed that the emitted quanta are generally of larger
wavelength than the short-wavelength cut-off.
• The intensity of the continuum rises to a broad maximum and falls
off gradually with increasing wavelength. This cut-off wavelength is
given (in nanometers) by
 X-Ray Spectrum
where,
• h = Planck’s constant
• c = velocity of electromagnetic radiation
• e = electronic charge
• V= X-ray tube voltage in volts
• When the potential across the tube is increased, a stage is
reached where the energy is sufficient to eject an electron
from one of the inner shells of the atoms constituting the
target material.
• The place of the ejected electron is filled up promptly by an
electron from an outer shell, releasing a photon of X-radiation,
whose wavelength is dependent on the energy levels and
hence characteristic of the material in the anode, or a
specimen applied on the target.
 INSTRUMENTATION FOR X-RAY
SPECTROMETRY
• The following are the important parts:
• X-ray generating equipment
• Collimator
• Monochromators
• Detectors
INSTRUMENTATION FOR X-RAY
SPECTROMETRY
Filters
 Monochromators
(Analyzing Crystal)
 Monochromators
• where d is the distance between adjacent
planes in the crystal, and angle between the
direction of the incident beam and that of the
diffracted beam is 2θ.
 X-Ray Spectrometers
• XDS (X-Ray Diffraction Spectroscopy)
• XAS (X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy)
• XFS (X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy)
X-Ray Diffractometer:
(Debye-Scherrer Powder Camera)
 X-Ray Absorption Spectrometer
• X-rays are absorbed by matter and the degree of
absorption is determined by the nature and
amount of the absorbing material. The
fundamental equation for absorbance of a
monochromatic X-ray beam follows Beer’s law,
which may be expressed as follows:

where P = radiant power after passage through an

absorbing sample, x cm in length.
Po = initial power of the radiation
ρ= density of the material
μ = linear absorption coefficient
 X-Ray Absorption Spectrometer
• The term μ/ρ is called the mass absorption
coefficient, generally expressed as μm. The
quantity depends upon the wavelength and the
atomic properties of the absorbing substance as
follows:

where N is the Avogadro’s number, A is the atomic

weight of the absorbing material, Z the atomic number, λ
the wavelength, n the exponent between 2.5 and 3, and
C a constant over a range between characteristic
absorption edges.
 X-Ray Absorption Spectrometer
• where N is the Avogadro’s number, A is the atomic weight of
the absorbing material, Z the atomic number, λ the
wavelength, n the exponent between 2.5 and 3, and C a
constant over a range between characteristic absorption
edges.
• The mass absorption coefficient μm is independent of the
physical or chemical state of the specimen. In a compound
or mixture, it is an additive function of the mass absorption
coefficients of the constituent elements. i.e.
 X-ray absorption spectrum of Argon

This graph shows a discontinuity at λ= 387.1 pm, which is

known as the k-critical absorption wavelength of argon.
Radiation of greater wavelength has inadequate energy to
eject k-electrons of argon. Hence, it is not absorbed so
greatly, as is radiation of greatly shorter wavelength.
 X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy
• X-ray absorption is of most value, where the
element to be determined is the only heavy
component in a material of low atomic weight.
• Examples of such analysis are lead in gasoline
and chlorine in organic compounds.
 X-Fluorescence Spectroscopy
• Prompt emission of an X-ray by an atom ionised by a
higher energy X-ray is a form of fluorescence.
• Since such fluorescent emissions are characteristic
of a particular element and virtually independent of
its state of chemical combination, the measurement
of the intensity of fluorescent X-rays can provide a
simple, non-destructive means of quantitative
analysis.
• X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy is an
extremely powerful tool for qualitative and
quantitative determination of heavy elements.
 X-Fluorescence Spectroscopy
• When a photon or charged particle of sufficient energy
interacts with an atom, the atom may be excited
releasing a specific electron out of an inner, K or L shell.
• In this situation, an outer shell electron can fall into the
vacated inner shell, releasing energy as an X-ray. By
measuring the photon energy of this fluorescent X-rays,
the atom can be identified.
• The energy of the emitted radiation depends upon the
atomic energy level separation and on the atomic
number.
 X-Fluorescence Spectroscopy
• Mosley showed the relation between atomic
number Z and the reciprocal of the wavelength l for
each spectral line belonging to a particular series of
emission lines for each element in the periodic
table.

• where, C = Speed of light, a = constant of

proportionality, and σ = a constant whose value
depends on the electronic transition series.
X-Fluorescence Spectroscopy
 X-Fluorescence Spectroscopy
• The sensitivity and specificity of the XRF
depends upon the following fundamental
physical factors:
• The probability that the incident radiation
will produce the desired excitation.
• The probability that the resulting
readjustment of the atom will produce
fluorescence X-ray emission.
 X-Ray Fluorescent Spectrometer
XRF analyzers consist of:
• Excitation source – which bombards the sample
with sufficient energy to induce fluorescent X-
radiation
• Sample holder
• X-ray spectrometer (energy-analyser)
• Detection system
 XFS Types
• Energy Dispersive XFS
• Wavelength Dispersive XFS

 E  h   hc / 
 Energy Dispersive XFS
• It consists of an excitation source, a sample and a semiconductor
detector.
• The fluorescent X-radiation resulting from irradiation of the
sample reaches a detector, which produces an electrical pulse
proportional to the energy of the X-rays.
• The energy level indicates the element involved, and the number
of pulses counted at each energy level over the entire counting
time is related to the concentration of the element.
 Wavelength Dispersive XFS
• In the flat-crystal arrangement, the primary and secondary slits
and the analyser crystal are placed on the focal circle, so that
Bragg’s law will always be satisfied, as the goniometer is rotated.
• The detector is rotated by an angle twice the angular change in
the crystal setting.
 Wavelength Dispersive XFS
• Due to absorption of long-wavelength X-rays by
air and window materials, some intensity losses
of X-rays take place, which can be reduced by
evacuating the goniometer chamber; or the air in
the radiation - from the sample surface to the
detector window may be replaced by helium.
• In some cases, vacuum spectrometers are also
used.
 Wavelength Dispersive XFS
• The curved crystal arrangement is more suitable for
the analysis of small specimens.
• In this technique, collimators are not required, but
increase in intensity is obtained by focusing the
fluorescence lines.
• The crystal is bent to the diameter of the focusing
circle and its inner surface is ground to the radius of
the focusing circle.
• The radiation of one wavelength diverging from the
entrance slit will be diffracted for a particular setting
of the crystal and converge to a line image at a
symmetric point on the focusing circle.
Wavelength Dispersive XFS
 Applications of X-Ray Spectrometers
XFS:
In Medicine for analysis of Sulphur in Protein, Chloride in
Blood Serum, analysis of tissues, bones , body fluids etc.
XDS:
Crystal topography:
Defects (Dislocations, Faults), Stress Analysis, Doped Crystal
Behavior etc. (Ex: silicon and gallium arsenide crystals )
XAS:
Medical: Radiography, Computed Tomography
Defects in welding, Quantity of liquid in closed vessels and
lowing through closed pipes which can’t be broken,.