Nuclear Radiation Detectors

Introduction

Ionizing radiation is rarely detected directly.

Instead, detectors usually measure the secondary products arising from the
interactions of the radiation with the detector material.

For example, as an alpha or beta particle traverses a detector's sensitive

volume,

electron-ion pairs or electron-hole pairs are created and the subsequent

movement and collection of charges gives rise to an electrical pulse or
current.

But, ionizing radiation such as gamma photons and neutrons must first
undergo interactions in the detector material that produce secondary
charged particles, recoil atoms or electrons that, in turn, produce charge
pairs as they slowdown.

The collection of the ionization created by radiation in a detector volume

can be used simply to detect the passage of a radiation particle.

The rate of generation of radiation-induced pulses can then be used to

measure the rate at which radiation particles traverse the detector.

Such detectors are termed as radiation counters.

In some detectors, the magnitude of the radiation induced pulse is

related to the type of radiation particle and its energy.

By measuring both the number of pulses and the distribution of pulse

sizes produced by a given type of radiation, both the number and energy
distribution of the incident radiation can be determined.

These detectors can then be used as energy spectrometers.

348
In some detectors the average current can be used as a measure of the
amount of ionization or energy deposition, per unit mass of detector
material, caused by incident radiation.

These detectors can then be calibrated to measure radiation absorbed doses

and are thus called dosimeters.

An important aspect of radiation detection is an assessment of the

uncertainties associated with ionization measurements.

Both the release of radiation by radioactive decay and the interactions of

radiation with matter are stochastic in nature.

Thus, repeated measurements of radiation emitted by a source of constant

activity, in a given detector volume in a given time interval, exhibit
random statistical fluctuations.

The quantification of such statistical fluctuations is a necessity in radiation

measurements.

Gaseous Ionization Detectors

As ionizing radiation passes through a chamber, the motion within an

electric field of the ion pairs formed inside the chamber produces an
electrical current.

The magnitude of the current is measured and correlated (calibrated) to

the intensity of the radiation field.

A very common geometry is a coaxial detector that consists of a thin,

positively charged, central wire anode (held in place by insulators)
surrounded by an outer, negatively-charged, cathode tube.
 Fig 1:Basic elements of a gas-filled radiation-detector tube. The
cathode is often used to seal the gas cavity from the ambient
environment. The output voltage pulse is produced across the load
resistor

The outer tube contains the gas and defines the active volume of the
chamber.

Radiation either interacts in the wall of the chamber or directly in the

filling gas.

For incident electromagnetic radiation the dominant interactions,

photoelectric effect, Compton scatter, and pair production, occur
primarily in the chamber wall material.

If the electrons released from the atoms in the wall material escape from
the wall and enter the active gas volume of the chamber,

then these charged particles (secondary radiation) produce ionization as

they pass through the gas.

The potential difference between the anode wire and the cathode
establishes an electric field that causes positive and negative charges to
move in opposite directions.

Electrons rapidly drift toward the anode and positive ions migrate more
slowly toward the cathode.

The motion of these ion pairs causes a flow of current in the external
circuit and establishes a voltage across the load resistance.

There are three basic types of gas-filled radiation detectors:

ionization chambers,

proportional counters and

Geiger-Mueller counters.

All three are known as ionization chambers, but they each have a unique
process for forming the total number of ion pairs that are collected at the
electrodes.

All three operate by forming initial ion pairs from the incident radiation.

Once these ion pairs are formed, it is important that they do not recombine
and thereby fail to contribute to the electrical signal.

Figure.2 shows the various operational regions of gas-filled chambers.

Fig 2:Operational regions for gas-filled radiation detectors. Variation

of ion pair charge with applied voltage.
An ionizing radiation beam passes through the gas, it will cause ionization
of the gas molecules and ion pairs will be produced depending on the type
and pressure of the gas.

When a voltage is applied between the two electrodes,

the negative electrons will move to the anode and the positive ions to the
cathode,

thus producing a current that can be measured on a meter.

At very low voltages, the ion pairs do not receive enough acceleration to
reach the electrodes and therefore may combine together to form the
original molecule instead of being collected by the electrodes.

This region is called the region of recombination (Region I) where the

potential difference between the anode and cathode is not sufficient to
collect all the initial ion pairs.

Ion chambers operating in this region are not useful radiation detectors.

As the applied voltage is gradually increased, a region of saturation is

encountered, where the current measured remains almost the same over the
range of applied voltages.

In this region II, the ionization chamber Region, only the primary ion
pairs formed by the initial radiations are collected.

Individual events cannot be detected; only the total current passing

through the chamber is measured.

Because specific ionization differs for different radiations, the amount of

current produced by these radiations differs in this region.

The voltage in this region is of the order of 50-300V.

In this region the resulting output current is referred to as the ionization

chamber saturation current.
Ionization chambers such as dose calibrators are operated in this region.

When the applied voltage is further increased,

the electrons and positive ions gain such high velocities and energies
during their acceleration toward the electrodes that they cause secondary
ionization.

The latter will increase the measured current. This process is referred to as
the gas amplification.

This factor can be as high as 106 per individual primary event depending
on the design of the gas detector and the applied voltage.

In this region, the total current measured is equal to the number of

ionizations caused by the primary radiation multiplied by the gas
amplification factor.

In this region, the current increases with the applied voltage in

proportion to the initial number of ion pairs produced by the incident
radiation.

Therefore, as in the case of the region of saturation, the current

amplification is relatively proportional for α , β∧γ -radiations.

The region III referred to as the proportional region (see Fig.2).

Proportional counters are usually filled with 90% argon and 10% methane
at atmospheric pressure.

These counters can be used to count individual counts and to discriminate

radiations of different energies.

These counters, however, are not commonly used for y-and x-ray counting
because of poor counting efficiency (<1%).

As the applied voltage is increased further, the current produced by

different types of radiation tends to become identical.
The voltage range over which the current tends to converge is referred to
as the region of limited proportionality.

This region is not practically used for detecting any radiation.

This limited proportionality region (region III) where the number of ion-
electron pairs collected is relatively independent of the initial number of
ion-electron pairs created by the incident radiation.

This region generally is not useful operationally.

With additional increase in voltage beyond the region of limited

proportionality, the current becomes identical, regardless of how many ion
pairs are produced by the incident radiations.

The region of Geiger-Mueller (GM) counter operation, Region IV,

exhibits a "plateau" over which M reaches a nearly constant value.

The current is produced by an avalanche of interactions.

When highly accelerated electrons strike the anode with a great force,
ultraviolet (UV) light is emitted, which causes further emission of
photoelectrons by gas ionization and from the chamber walls.

The photoelectrons will again strike the anode to produce more UV

photons thus each radiation event produces an avalanche of ions
throughout the chamber.

The circuit in this case produces a large electrical pulse in response to each
radiation event, regardless of the applied voltage (within the Geiger Muller
region) or the energy of the radiation.

The pulse size is essentially same for all radiation events, no matter the
type of radiation or the amount energy transfer.

In this region one avalanche produces secondary photons whose

interactions produce other local avalanches until the entire anode is
surrounded by ion-electron pairs.
In this region, the charge collected per interaction is no longer proportional
to the initial number of ion pairs created.

Therefore, it is very difficult to distinguish between different types of

incident radiation or to gain knowledge about the energy of the incident
radiation.

An increase in the voltage above the Geiger voltage range causes

spontaneous ionizations in the detector even in the absence of radiation.

If the tube voltage is too large, the tube undergoes continuous avalanches
around the central anode, one leading to another.

This region V is known as the continuous discharge region.

Its entry normally leads to failure of the ion chamber.

Operation of a radiation detector in this continuous discharge region can

result in permanent damage to the detector.

Ionization chamber

The ionization chamber is the simplest of all gas-filled radiation detectors,

and is widely used for the detection and measurement of certain types
of ionizing radiation; X-rays, gamma rays, and beta particles.

Conventionally, the term "ionization chamber" is used exclusively to

describe those detectors which collect all the charges created by direct
ionization within the gas through the application of an electric field. 

It only uses the discrete charges created by each interaction between the
incident radiation and the gas,

and does not involve the gas multiplication mechanisms used by other
radiation instruments, such as the Geiger counter or the proportional
counter.

Ion chambers have a good uniform response to radiation over a wide range
of energies and are the preferred means of measuring high levels of
gamma radiation.
They are widely used in the

nuclear power industry,

research labs,
radiography,
radiobiology, and
environmental monitoring.

An ionization chamber measures the charge from the number of ion

pairs created within a gas caused by incident radiation.

It consists of a gas-filled chamber with two electrodes; known

as anode and cathode.

The electrodes may be in the form of parallel plates (Parallel Plate

Ionization Chambers: PPICs), or

a cylinder arrangement with a coaxially located internal anode wire

(Fig.3).

A voltage potential is applied between the electrodes to create an electric

field in the fill gas.

When gas between the electrodes is ionized by incident ionizing

radiation, ion-pairs are created

and the resultant positive ions and dissociated electrons move to the
electrodes of the opposite polarity under the influence of the electric field.

This generates an ionization current which is measured by

an electrometer circuit.

The electrometer must be capable of measuring the very small output

current which is in the region of femto-amperes to pico-amperes,
depending on the chamber design, radiation dose and applied voltage.
 Fig 3: Schematic of Ionization chamber

Each ion pair created deposits or removes a small electric charge to or

from an electrode, such that the accumulated charge is proportional to the
number of ion pairs created, and hence the radiation dose.

This continual generation of charge produces an ionization current, which

is a measure of the total ionizing dose entering the chamber.

However, the chamber cannot discriminate between radiation types (beta

or gamma) and cannot produce an energy spectrum of radiation.

The electric field also enables the device to work continuously by mopping
up electrons, which prevents the fill gas from becoming saturated, where
no more ions could be collected, and by preventing the recombination of
ion pairs, which would diminish the ion current.

This mode of operation is referred to as "current" mode, meaning that the

output signal is a continuous current, and not a pulse output as in the cases
of the Geiger–Müller tube or the proportional counter.

Referring to the accompanying ion pair collection graph, it can be seen

that in the "ion chamber" operating region the collection of ion pairs is
effectively constant over a range of applied voltage, as due to its relatively
low electric field strength the ion chamber does not have any
"multiplication effect".

This is in distinction to the Geiger–Müller tube or the proportional counter

whereby secondary electrons, and ultimately multiple avalanches, greatly
amplify the original ion-current charge.
These chambers are normally cylindrical and operate at atmospheric
pressure,

but to prevent ingress of moisture a filter containing a desiccant is installed

in the vent line. 

This is to stop moisture building up in the interior of the chamber, which

would otherwise be introduced by the "pump" effect of changing
atmospheric air pressure.

These chambers have a cylindrical body made of aluminium or plastic a

few millimetres thick.

The material is selected to have an atomic number similar to that of air so

that the wall is said to be "air equivalent" over a range of radiation beam
energies. 

This has the effect of ensuring the gas in the chamber is acting as though it
were a portion of an infinitely large gas volume, and increases the
accuracy by reducing interactions of gamma with the wall material.

The higher the atomic number of the wall material, the greater the chance
of interaction.

The wall thickness is a trade-off between maintaining the air effect with a
thicker wall, and increasing sensitivity by using a thinner wall.

These chambers often have an end window made of material thin enough,
so that beta particles can enter the gas volume.

Gamma radiation enters both through the end window and the side walls.

For hand-held instruments the wall thickness is made as uniform as

possible to reduce photon directionality though any beta window response
is obviously highly directional.

The efficiency of the chamber can be further increased by the use of a high
pressure gas.
Typically a pressure of 8-10 atmospheres can be used, and various noble
gases are employed.

The higher pressure results in a greater gas density and thereby a greater
chance of collision with the fill gas and ion pair creation by incident
radiation.

Because of the increased wall thickness required to withstand this high

pressure, only gamma radiation can be detected.

Proportional Counter

The proportional counter is a type of gaseous ionization detector device

used to measure particles of ionizing radiation.

The key feature is its ability to measure the energy of incident radiation,

by producing a detector output pulse that is proportional to the radiation
energy absorbed by the detector due to an ionizing event; hence the
detector's name.

It is widely used where energy levels of incident radiation must be known,

such as in the discrimination between alpha and beta particles, or accurate
measurement of  X-ray radiation dose.

A proportional counter uses a combination of the mechanisms of a Geiger–

Müller tube and an ionization chamber, and operates in an intermediate
voltage region between these (Fig.4).

In a proportional counter the fill gas of the chamber is an inert gas which is

ionized by incident radiation, and a quench gas to ensure each pulse
discharge terminates; a common mixture is 90% argon, 10% methane,
known as P-10.

An ionizing particle entering the gas collides with an atom of the inert gas
and ionizes it to produce an electron and a positively charged ion,
commonly known as an "ion pair".

As the ionizing particle travels through the chamber it leaves a trail of ion
pairs along its trajectory, the number of which is proportional to the energy
of the particle if it is fully stopped within the gas.
Typically a 1 MeV stopped particle will create about 30,000 ion pairs.

Fig 4: A basic proportional counter schematic

The chamber geometry and the applied voltage is such that in most of the
chamber the electric field strength is low and the chamber acts as an ion
chamber.

However, the field is strong enough to prevent re-combination of the ion

pairs and causes positive ions to drift towards the cathode and electrons
towards the anode.

This is the "ion drift" region. In the immediate vicinity of the anode wire,
the field strength becomes large enough to produce Townsend
avalanches.

This avalanche region occurs only fractions of a millimetre from the anode
wire, which itself is of a very small diameter.

The purpose of this is to use the multiplication effect of the avalanche

produced by each ion pair. This is the "avalanche" region.

A key design goal is that each original ionizing event due to incident
radiation produces only one avalanche.

This is to ensure proportionality between the number of original events

and the total ion current.

For this reason, the applied voltage, the geometry of the chamber and the
diameter of the anode wire are critical to ensure proportional operation.
If avalanches start to self-multiply due to UV photons as they do in a
Geiger-Muller tube, then the counter enters a region of "limited
proportionality" until at a higher applied voltage the Geiger discharge
mechanism occurs with complete ionization of the gas enveloping the
anode wire and consequent loss of particle energy information.

Therefore, it can be said that the proportional counter has the key design
feature of two distinct ionization regions:

1. Ion drift region: in the outer volume of the chamber – the creation
of number ion pairs proportional to incident radiation energy.
2. Avalanche region: in the immediate vicinity of the anode – Charge
amplification of ion pair currents, while maintaining localized
avalanches.

The process of charge amplification greatly improves the signal-to-

noise ratio of the detector and reduces the subsequent electronic
amplification required. In summary, the proportional counter is an
ingenious combination of two ionization mechanisms in one chamber
which finds wide practical use.

Signal amplification by multiplication: In the case of a cylindrical

proportional counter the multiplication, M, of the signal caused by an
avalanche can be modeled as follows:

[( ) ]
V ln2 V
ln M ln = ln - ln K
lln b ∆ Vλ b
ln ⁡( ) paln( )
a a
where a is the anode wire radius, b is the radius of the counter, p is the
pressure of the gas, and V is the operating voltage. K is a property of the
gas used and relates the energy needed to cause an avalanche to the
pressure of the gas. The term ∆ V λ gives the change in voltage caused by an
avalanche.

Geiger Muller Counter

A Geiger counter consists of a Geiger-Müller (G.M) tube the sensing

element which detects the radiation and the processing electronics, which
displays the result.
The Geiger-Müller tube is filled with an inert gas such as helium, neon, or
argon at low pressure, to which a high voltage is applied.
The tube briefly conducts electrical charge when a particle or photon of
incident radiation makes the gas conductive by ionization.

The ionization is considerably amplified within the tube by the Townsend

discharge effect to produce an easily measured detection pulse, which is
fed to the processing and display electronics.

This large pulse from the tube makes the Geiger counter relatively cheap
to manufacture, as the subsequent electronics are greatly simplified
(Fig.5). 

The electronics also generate the high voltage, typically 400–900 volts,
that has to be applied to the Geiger-Müller tube to enable its operation.

To stop the discharge in the Geiger-Müller tube a little halogen gas or

organic material (alcohol) is added to the gas mixture.

Fig 5: Basic schematic of a Geiger-Muller counter

There are two types of detected radiation readout: counts or radiation dose.

The counts display is the simplest and is the number of ionizing events
detected displayed either as a count rate, such as "counts per minute" or
"counts per second", or as a total number of counts over a set time period
(an integrated total).

The counts readout is normally used when alpha or beta particles are being
detected.
A Geiger-Müller tube can detect the presence of radiation, but not its
energy, which influences the radiation's ionizing effect.

The readout can be analog or digital, and modern instruments are offering
serial communications with a host computer or network.

There is usually an option to produce audible clicks representing the

number of ionization events detected.

This is the distinctive sound normally associated with hand held or

portable Geiger counters.

The purpose of this is to allow the user to concentrate on manipulation of

the instrument whilst retaining auditory feedback on the radiation rate.

Principle of operation:

A G-M tube consists of a chamber filled with a gas mixture at a low

pressure of about 0.1atmosphere.

The chamber contains two electrodes, between which there is a potential

difference of several hundred volts.

The walls of the tube are either metal or have their inside surface coated
with a conducting material or a spiral wire to form the cathode, while the
anode is a wire-mounted axially in the center of the chamber.

When ionizing radiation strikes the tube, some molecules of the fill gas are
ionized directly by the incident radiation, and if the tube cathode is an
electrical conductor, such as stainless steel, indirectly by means of
secondary electrons produced in the walls of the tube, which migrate into
the gas.
This creates positively charged ions and free electrons, known as ion pairs,
in the gas.

The strong electric field created by the voltage across the tube's electrodes
accelerates the positive ions towards the cathode and the electrons towards
the anode.
Close to the anode in the "avalanche region" where the electric field
strength rises exponentially as the anode is approached, free electrons gain
sufficient energy to ionize additional gas molecules by collision and create
a large number of electron avalanches.
These spread along the anode and effectively throughout the avalanche
region.

This is the "gas multiplication" effect which gives the tube its key
characteristic of being able to produce a significant output pulse from a
single original ionizing event.

If there were to be only one avalanche per original ionizing event, then the
number of excited molecules would be in the order of 106 to 108.

However the production of multiple avalanches results in an increased

multiplication factor which can produce 109 to 1010 ion pairs. 

The creation of multiple avalanches is due to the production of UV

photons in the original avalanche, which are not affected by the electric
field and move laterally to the axis of the anode to instigate further
ionizing events by collision with gas molecules.

These collisions produce further avalanches, which in turn produce more

photons, and thereby more avalanches in a chain reaction which spreads
laterally through the fill gas, and envelops the anode wire.

For common sizes of tubes the complete ionization of the gas around the
anode takes just a few microseconds. 

This short, intense pulse of current can be measured as a count event in the
form of a voltage pulse developed across an external electrical resistor.
This can be in the order of volts, thus making further electronic processing
simple.

The discharge is terminated by the collective effect of the positive ions

created by the avalanches.

These ions have lower mobility than the free electrons due to their higher
mass and move slowly from the vicinity of the anode wire.
This creates a "space charge" which counteracts the electric field that is
necessary for continued avalanche generation.

For a particular tube geometry and operating voltage this termination

always occurs when a certain number of avalanches have been created,
therefore the pulses from the tube are always of the same magnitude
regardless of the energy of the initiating particle.

Consequently, there is no radiation energy information in the pulses which

means the Geiger–Muller tube cannot be used to generate spectral
information about the incident radiation.

In practice the termination of the avalanche is improved by the use of

"quenching" techniques.

Pressure of the fill gas is important in the generation of avalanches.

Too low a pressure and the efficiency of interaction with incident radiation
is reduced.

Too high a pressure, and the “mean free path” for collisions between
accelerated electrons and the fill gas is too small, and the electrons cannot
gather enough energy between each collision to cause ionisation of the
gas.

The energy gained by electrons is proportional to the ratio “e/p”, where

“e” is the electric field strength at that point in the gas, and “p” is the gas
pressure.

Broadly, there are two main types of Geiger tube construction.

End window type:

For alpha particles, low energy beta particles, and low energy X-rays, the
usual form is a cylindrical end-window tube.

This type has a window at one end covered in a thin material through
which low-penetrating radiation can easily pass.
Mica is a commonly used material due to its low mass per unit area. The
other end houses the electrical connection to the anode.

Used for gamma radiation detection above energies of about 25 KeV, this
type generally has an overall wall thickness of about 1-2 mm of chrome
steel.

Because most high energy gamma photons will pass through the low
density fill gas without interacting, the tube uses the interaction of photons
on the molecules of the wall material to produce high energy secondary
electrons within the wall.

Some of these electrons are produced close enough to the inner wall of the
tube to escape into the fill gas.

As soon as this happens the electron drifts to the anode and an electron
avalanche occurs as though the free electron had been created within the
gas. 

The avalanche is a secondary effect of a process that starts within the tube
wall with the production of electrons that migrate to the inner surface of
the tube wall, and then enter the fill gas.

This effect is considerably attenuated at low energies below about 20 KeV.

Thin walled:

Thin walled tubes are used for high energy beta detection, where the beta
enters via the side of the tube and interacts directly with the gas, but the
radiation has to be energetic enough to penetrate the tube wall.

Low energy beta, which would penetrate an end window, would be

stopped by the tube wall. Low energy gamma and X-ray detection.

The lower energy photons interact better with the fill gas so this design
concentrates on increasing the volume of the fill gas by using a long thin
walled tube and does not use the interaction of photons in the tube wall.

The transition from thin walled to thick walled design takes place at the
300–400 keV energy levels.
Above these levels thick walled designs are used, and beneath these levels
the direct gas ionization effect is predominant.
Neutron detection:

G–M tubes will not detect neutrons since these do not ionize the gas.

However, neutron-sensitive tubes can be produced which either have the

inside of the tube coated with boron, or the tube contains boron
trifluoride or helium-3 as the fill gas.

The neutrons interact with the boron nuclei, producing alpha particles, or
directly with the helium-3 nuclei producing hydrogen and tritium ions and
electrons.

These charged particles then trigger the normal avalanche process.

Gas mixtures:

The components of the gas fill mixture are an inert gas such as helium,
argon or neon which is ionised by incident radiation, and a "quench" gas of
5–10% of an organic vapor or a halogen gas to prevent spurious pulsing by
quenching the electron avalanches. 

This combination of gases is known as a Penning mixture and makes use

of the Penning ionization effect.

The modern halogen-filled G–M tube was invented by Sidney

H.Liebson in 1947 and has several advantages over the older tubes with
organic mixtures. 

The halogen tube discharge takes advantage of a metastable  state of the

inert gas atom to more-readily ionize a halogen molecule than an organic
vapor, enabling the tube to operate at much lower voltages, typically 400–
600 volts instead of 900–1200 volts.

While halogen-quenched tubes have greater plateau voltage slopes

compared to organic-quenched tubes (an undesirable quality), they have a
vastly longer life than tubes quenched with organic compounds.
This is because the organic vapor is gradually destroyed by the discharge
process (giving organic-quenched tubes a useful life of around 10 9 events),
while the halogen ions can recombine over time (giving halogen-quenched
tubes an effectively unlimited lifetime for most uses, although they will
still eventually fail at some point due to other ionization-initiated
processes that limit the lifetime of all Geiger tubes). For these reasons, the
halogen-quenched tube is now the most common.

The Geiger plateau is the voltage range in which the G-M tube operates in
its correct mode, where ionization occurs along the length of the anode.

If a G–M tube is exposed to a steady radiation source and the applied

voltage is increased from zero, it follows the plot of current shown in the
"Geiger region" where the gradient flattens; this is the Geiger plateau.

This is shown in more detail in the accompanying Geiger Plateau Curve

diagram (Fig.6).

If the tube voltage is progressively increased from zero the efficiency of

detection will rise until the most energetic radiation starts to produce
pulses which can be detected by the electronics.

This is the "starting voltage". Increasing the voltage still further results in
rapidly rising counts until the "knee" or threshold of the plateau is reached,
where the rate of increase of counts falls off.

This is where the tube voltage is sufficient to allow a complete discharge

along the anode for each detected radiation count, and the effect of
different radiation energies are equal.

However, the plateau has a slight slope mainly due to the lower electric
fields at the ends of the anode because of tube geometry.

As the tube voltage is increased, these fields strengthen to produce

avalanches.

At the end of the plateau the count rate begins to increase rapidly again,
until the onset of continuous discharge where the tube cannot detect
radiation, and may be damaged.
Depending on the characteristics of the specific tube (manufacturer, size,
gas type, etc.) the voltage range of the plateau will vary.

The slope is usually expressed as percentage change of counts per 100V.

To prevent overall efficiency changes due to variation of tube voltage, a

regulated voltage supply is used, and it is normal practice to operate in the
middle of the plateau to reduce the effect of any voltage variations.

Quenching and dead time:

Dead time and recovery time in a Geiger Muller tube. The tube can
produce no further pulses during the dead time, and only produces pulses
of lesser height until the recovery time has elapsed.

The ideal G–M tube should produce a single pulse for every single
ionizing event due to radiation.

It should not give spurious pulses, and should recover quickly to the
passive state, ready for the next radiation event.

However, when positive argon ions reach the cathode and become neutral
atoms by gaining electrons, the atoms can be elevated to enhanced energy
levels.

These atoms then return to their ground state by emitting photons which in
turn produce further ionization and thereby spurious secondary discharges.

If nothing were done to counteract this, ionization would be prolonged and

could even escalate.
The prolonged avalanche would increase the "dead time" when new events
cannot be detected, and could become continuous and damage the tube.

Some form of quenching of the ionization is therefore essential to reduce

the dead time and protect the tube, and a number of quenching techniques
are used.

The G.M.counter can account for about 500 particles per second.
The G.M. counter will not register those particles that pass through it in
the dead time.

Dead time refers to the time taken by the tube to recover between counts.
It requires about 200 µs for the tube to recover.

If lot of particles enter the G.M. tube at a rapid rate, the tube will not have
time to recover and some particles may not be counted.

Fig 6:The characteristic curve of Geiger Muller tube response with

constant radiation against varying tube voltage.

Chemical quenching:

Self-quenching or internal-quenching tubes stop the discharge without

external assistance, originally by means of the addition of a small amount
of a polyatomic organic vapor originally such as butane or ethanol, but for
modern tubes is a halogen such as bromine or chlorine.

If a poor gas quencher is introduced to the tube, the positive argon ions,
during their motion toward the cathode, would have multiple collisions
with the quencher gas molecules and transfer their charge and some energy
to them.

Thus, neutral argon atoms would be produced and the quencher gas ions in
their turn would reach the cathode, gain electrons therefrom, and move
into excited states which would decay by photon emission, producing tube
discharge.
However, effective quencher molecules, when excited, lose their energy
not by photon emission, but by dissociation into neutral quencher
molecules.
No spurious pulses are thus produced.

Even with chemical quenching, for a short time after a discharge pulse
there is a period during which the tube is rendered insensitive and is thus
temporarily unable to detect the arrival of any new ionizing particle (the
so-called dead time; typically 50–100 microseconds).

This causes a loss of counts at sufficiently high count rates and limits the
G.M. tube to an effective (accurate) count rate of approximately 10 3 counts
per second even with external quenching.

While a G.M. tube is technically capable of reading higher count rates

before it truly saturates, the level of uncertainty involved and the risk of
saturation makes it extremely dangerous to reply upon higher count rate
readings when attempting to calculate an equivalent radiation dose rate
from the count rate.

A consequence of this is that ion chamber  instruments are usually

preferred for higher count rates, however a modern external quenching
technique can extend this upper limit considerably.

External quenching:

External quenching, sometimes called "active quenching" or "electronic

quenching", uses simplistic high speed control electronics to rapidly
remove and re-apply the high voltage between the electrodes for a fixed
time after each discharge peak in order to increase the maximum count
rate and lifetime of the tube.

Although this can be used instead of a quench gas, it is much more

commonly used in conjunction with a quench gas.

The "time-to-first-count method" is a sophisticated modern

implementation of external quenching that allows for dramatically
increased maximum count rates via the use of statistical signal processing
techniques and much more complex control electronics.
Due to uncertainty in the count rate introduced by the simplistic
implementation of external quenching, the count rate of a Geiger tube
becomes extremely unreliable above approximately 103 counts per second.
With the time-to-first-count method, effective count rates of 10 5 counts per
second are achievable, two orders of magnitude larger than the normal
effective limit.

The time-to-first-count method is significantly more complicated to

implement than traditional external quenching methods, and as a result of
this it has not seen widespread use.

Efficiency:

The efficiency of the counter is defined as the ration of the observed

counts per second to the number of ionizing particles entering the counter
per second.

Counting efficiency is defined as the ability of counting of the G.M

counter.

Counting efficiency, ɳ=1−exp .( spl)

where s=¿ specific ionization at one atmosphere, p=¿ pressure in

atmosphere, l=¿ path length of the ionization particle in the counter.

Limitations:

There are two main limitations of the Geiger counter.

Because the output pulse from a Geiger-Müller tube is always of the same
magnitude (regardless of the energy of the incident radiation), the tube
cannot differentiate between radiation types. 

Secondly, the inability to measure high radiation rates due to the "dead
time" of the tube.

This is an insensitive period after each ionization of the gas during which
any further incident radiation will not result in a count, and the indicated
rate is, therefore, lower than actual.
Typically the dead time will reduce indicated count rates above about
104 to 105 counts per second depending on the characteristic of the tube
being used. 

While some counters have circuitry which can compensate for this, for
accurate measurements ion chamber instruments are preferred for high
radiation rates.

Scintillation Detectors

A scintillation counter or scintillation detector is a radiation

detector which uses the effect known as scintillation.

Scintillation is a flash of light produced in a transparent material by the

passage of a particle (an electron, an alpha particle, an ion, or a high-
energy photon).

Scintillation occurs in the scintillator, which is a key part of a scintillation

detector.

In general, a scintillation detector consists of Scintillator and

Photodetector.

A scintillator generates photons in response to incident radiation. A

sensitive photodetector (usually a photomultiplier tube (PMT), a charge-
coupled device (CCD) camera, or a photodiode), which converts the light
to an electrical signal and electronics to process this signal.

The basic principle of operation involves the radiation reacting with a

scintillator, which produces a series of flashes of varying intensity.

The intensity of the flashes is proportional to the energy of the radiation.

This feature is very important.

These counters are suited to measure the energy of  gamma radiation

(gamma spectroscopy) and, therefore, can be used to identify gamma
emitting isotopes.
The intensity of the flashes and the amplitude of the output voltage pulse
are proportional to the energy of the radiation.

Therefore, scintillation counters can be used to determine the energy, as

well as the number, of the exciting particles (or gamma photons.

Scintillation Counter – Principle of operation:

Ionizing radiation enters the scintillator and interacts with the scintillator

material.

This causes electrons to be raised to an excited state.

The excited atoms of the scintillator material de-excite and rapidly emit a

photon in the visible (or near-visible) light range.

The quantity is proportional to the energy deposited by the ionizing

particle. The material is said to fluoresce.

The light created in the scintillator strikes the photocathode of

a photomultiplier tube, releasing at most one photoelectron per photon.

Using a voltage potential, this group of primary electrons is

electrostatically accelerated and focused so that they strike the first
dynode  of the photomultiplier with enough energy to release additional
electrons.
These secondary electrons are attracted and strike a second dynode
releasing more electrons.

This process occurs in the photomultiplier tube.

Each subsequent dynode impact releases further electrons, and so there is a

current amplifying effect at each dynode stage.

Each stage is at a higher potential than the previous to provide the

accelerating field.

Primary signal is multiplied and this amplification continues through 10 to

12 stages.
At the final dynode, sufficient electrons are available to produce a pulse of
sufficient magnitude for further amplification.

This pulse carries information about the energy of the original incident
radiation.

The number of such pulses per unit time also gives information about the
intensity of the radiation.

There are primarily two types of scintillators in common use in nuclear

and particle physics:

organic or plastic scintillators and

inorganic or crystalline scintillators.

Inorganic scintillators are usually crystals grown in high temperature

furnaces.

They include

lithium iodide (LiI), 

sodium iodide (NaI),

cesium iodide (CsI), and

zinc sulfide (ZnS).

The most widely used scintillation material is NaI(Tl) (thallium-doped

sodium iodide).

The iodine provides most of the stopping power in sodium iodide (since it
has a high Z = 53).

To increase the probability for photon emission and to reduce self-

absorption of the light, small amounts off impurities called activators are
added to the crystal.

A commonly used activator is thallium, and so these detectors are

indicated, for instance, as NaI(Tl).
These crystalline scintillators are characterized by high density, high
atomic number, and pulse decay times of approximately 1 microsecond (~
10-6 sec).

They exhibit high efficiency for detection of gamma rays and are capable
of handling high count rates.

Inorganic crystals can be cut to small sizes and arranged in an array

configuration so as to provide position sensitivity.

A disadvantage of some inorganic crystals, e.g., NaI, is

their hygroscopicity, a property which requires them to be housed in an
airtight container to protect them from moisture.

Organic scintillators are kinds of organic materials that provide detectable

photons in the visible part of the light spectrum, following the passage of a
charged particle or a photon.

In general, organic scintillators have fast decay times (typically ~10-8 sec),

while inorganic crystals are usually far slower (~10-6 sec), although some
also have fast components in their response.

There are three types of organic scintillators:

Pure organic crystals include crystals of anthracene, stilbene and

naphthalene. The decay time of this type of phosphor is approximately 10
nanoseconds. This type of crystal is frequently used in the detection of
beta particles. Plastic phosphors are made by adding scintillation
chemicals to a plastic matrix.

Photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) are a photon detection device that uses the

photoelectric effect combined with secondary emission to convert light
into an electrical signal.

A schematic diagram of a photomultiplier is shown in Figure 7.

Photomultiplier absorbs light emitted by the scintillator and re-emit it in

the form of electrons via the photoelectric effect.
The PMT has been the main choice for photon detection ever since due to
the fact that they have high quantum efficiency and high amplification.

The device consists of several components and these components are

shown in the Fig.7.

The coupling of a scintillator to a photomultiplier tube can be done in a

variety of ways.

Some detector-tube combinations are purchased as a sealed unit.

NaI(Tl) detectors can be placed into direct contact with the glass of the
PM tube using transparent “optical grease” to provide a relatively
uniform change in index of refraction and minimum internal reflection.

Sometimes the photomultiplier geometry is very different from the

scintillator geometry or it must be located away from the scintillator (to
eliminate effects of magnetic fields, for instance).

In this case a “light pipe” is used: light pipes can be cut to any size or
shape out of any transparent material such as Lucite.

Fig 7: Schematic of the basic components and principal of a

scintillation detector

Photocathode:

Right after a thin entry window, is a photocathode, which is made of

material in which the valence electrons are weakly bound and have a high
cross section for converting photons to electrons via the photoelectric
effect.

For example, Cs3Sb (caesium-antimony) may be used.

As a result, the light created in the scintillator strikes the photocathode of a

photomultiplier tube, releasing at most one photoelectron per photon.

Dynodes:

Using a voltage potential, this group of primary electrons is

electrostatically accelerated and focused so that they strike the first dynode
with enough energy to release additional electrons.

There is a series (“stages”) of dynodes made of material of relatively low

work function. These electrodes are operated at ever increasing potential
(e.g. ~100-200 V between dynodes).

At the dynode the electrons are multiplied by secondary emission.

The next dynode has a higher voltage which makes the electrons released
from the first to accelerate towards it.
At each dynode 3-4 electrons are released for every incident electron, and
with 6 to 14 dynodes the total gain, or electron amplification factor, will
be in the range of ~104-107 when they reach the anode.

Typical operating voltages are in the range of 500 to 3000 V.

At the final dynode, sufficient electrons are available to produce a pulse of

sufficient magnitude for further amplification.

This pulse carries information about the energy of the original incident
radiation.

The number of such pulses per unit time also gives information about the
intensity of the radiation.

Quantum Efficiency:
The sensitivity of a photocathode is usually quoted in terms of
the quantum efficiency.

In general, the term quantum efficiency (QE) may apply to incident

photon to converted electron (IPCE) ratio of a photosensitive device.

The quantum efficiency of the photocathode is defined as the probability

for the conversion of incident photons to an electrical signal and is defined
as:

number of photoelectrons emitted

QE=
number of incident photons

The quantum efficiency of any photosensitive device is a strong function

of wavelength of the incident light, and an effort is made to match the
spectral response of the photocathode to the emission spectrum of the
scintillator in use.

In the photomultiplier tube the quantum efficiency is limited to 20-30%,

but an average quantum efficiency over the emission spectrum of a typical
scintillator is about 15-20%.

The standard for quotation is the number of photoelectrons per keV energy
loss by fast electrons in a NaI(Tl) scintillator.

For the peak quantum efficiency, about 8 ~ 10 photoelectrons are produced

per each keV energy loss.

Therefore, the average energy loss required to create a single

photoelectron is ~ 100 eV, which is much bigger than the values in gas-
filled detectors or semiconductor detectors.

The PMT has been the main choice for photon detection ever since due to
the fact that they have high quantum efficiency and high amplification.

Lately however semiconductors have begun to compete with the PMT, the
photodiode for example which has higher quantum efficiency in the visible
range and above, lower power consumption and smaller size.
The quantum efficiency for the photodiode is high (60-80%) compared to
the PMT (20-30%) which gives a higher energy resolution.

Gamma Spectroscopy Using Scintillation Counter

Spectroscopes, or spectrometers, are sophisticated devices designed to

measure the spectral power distribution of a source. The incident radiation
generates a signal that allows to determine the energy of the incident
particle.

The block diagram of the components of a scintillation spectrometer

shown in Figure.8.

Fig 8: Block diagram of the components of a scintillation spectrometer

Most radioactive sources produce gamma rays, which are of various

energies and intensities.

Gamma rays frequently accompany the emission of alpha and beta

radiation. When these emissions are detected and analyzed with a
spectroscopy system, a gamma-ray energy spectrum can be produced. 

Gamma rays from radioactive decay are in the energy range from a few

keV to ~8 MeV, corresponding to the typical energy levels in nuclei with
reasonably long lifetimes.

They are produced by the decay of nuclei as they transition from a high
energy state to a lower state. 
A detailed analysis of this spectrum is typically used to determine
the identity and quantity of gamma emitters present in a sample, and is a
vital tool in radiometric assay.

The gamma spectrum is characteristic of the gamma-emitting nuclides

contained in the source.

The main components of a gamma spectrometer are:

the energy-sensitive radiation detector and

the electronic devices that analyse the detector output signals, such as a
pulse sorter (i.e., multichannel analyzer).

Additional components may include

signal amplifiers,

rate meters,

peak position stabilizers, and

data handling devices.

Detector:

The most important interaction mechanisms are the photoelectric effect,

the Compton effect, and pair production.

Through these processes, the energy of the gamma ray is absorbed and
converted into a voltage signal by detecting the energy difference before
and after the interaction (or, in a scintillation counter, the emitted photons
using a photomultiplier).

The voltage of the signal produced is proportional to the energy of the

detected gamma ray.

Data Acquisition:

The voltage pulses produced for every gamma ray that interacts within the
detector volume are then analyzed by a multichannel analyzer (MCA).

It takes the transient voltage signal and reshapes it into

a Gaussian or trapezoidal shape.

From this shape, the signal is then converted into a digital form.

In some systems, the analog-to-digital conversion is performed before the

peak is reshaped.

The analog-to-digital converter (ADC) also sorts the pulses by their height

into specific bins, or channels.

Each channel represents a specific range of energy in the spectrum,

the number of detected signals for each channel represents the spectral
intensity of the radiation in this energy range.

By changing the number of channels, it is possible to fine-tune the spectral

resolution and sensitivity.

Multi Channel Analyzer(MCA):

The multi channel analyzer (MCA) is an important laboratory instrument
which can measure distributions of input signals consisting of pulses.

It is an instrument used in laboratory and field applications, so to analyze

an input signal consisting of pulses.

MCAs are used extensively in digitizing various spectroscopy

experiments, especially those related to nuclear physics, including various
types of spectroscopy (alpha-, beta-, and gamma spectroscopy).

Fig 9 Schematic of a computer based MCA spectrometer

MCAs are typically interfaced with via USB, RS-232 or Ethernet, but can
use PCI also.

The MCA (Figure 9) provides a visual display of the resulting distributions

and usually can output the data to a printer or computer for further
analysis.

Control in older MCA’s was done by hard-wired logic, whereas all

modern MCA’s are microprocessor-controlled and have fairly extensive
local arithmetic operation capabilities.

Most microcomputers can function as MCA’s with the addition of a

specialized MCA board.

Operation:

A multichannel analyzer uses a fast ADC to record incoming pulses and

stores information about pulses in one of two ways:
Pulse-height analysis:

The amplitude of an incoming analog pulse (normally in the 0-10 V range)

is digitized by the ADC and the digital value is used as the address of a
memory location (corresponding to a given channel) that is incremented.

Thus the screen display of the number of counts vs. channel number is
really a histogram of the number of counts vs. pulse height, i.e. a pulse
height spectrum.

The range of pulse heights to be analyzed can be set via upper and lower
level discriminators at the input.

In pulse-height analysis (PHA) mode, the pulses are counted based on

their amplitude.

The number of different amplitudes that are counted depends on the

number of channels of the MCA, but is normally in the range of a few
thousand.

In this way a histogram of frequency against pulse amplitude (or "height")

can be produced and either sent to a computer, shown on a screen or (in
older models) directly printed.

This mode can be used to analyze energy distribution of various nuclear

processes, including nuclear decay: this is the process used in alpha-, beta-
and gamma spectroscopy.

A typical output of an MCA used in PHA mode to analyze 137

Cs gamma
spectrum is shown in Figure.10.
 Fig 10: The output of an MCA used in PHA mode to analyze 137Cs

Detector performance:

Gamma spectroscopy systems are selected to take advantage of several

performance characteristics.

Two of the most important include detector resolution and detector

efficiency.

Detector resolution:

Gamma rays detected in a spectroscopic system produce peaks in the

spectrum.

These peaks can also be called lines by analogy to optical spectroscopy.

The width of the peaks is determined by the resolution of the detector, a

very important characteristic of gamma spectroscopic detectors, and high
resolution enables the spectroscopist to separate two gamma lines that are
close to each other.

Gamma spectroscopy systems are designed and adjusted to produce

symmetrical peaks of the best possible resolution.

The peak shape is usually a Gaussian distribution.

In most spectra the horizontal position of the peak is determined by the
gamma ray's energy, and the area of the peak is determined by the
intensity of the gamma ray and the efficiency of the detector.

The most common figure used to express detector resolution is full width
at half maximum (FWHM).

This is the width of the gamma ray peak at half of the highest point on the
peak distribution.

Resolution figures are given with reference to specified gamma ray

energies.

Resolution can be expressed in absolute (i.e., eV or MeV) or relative

terms.

For example, a sodium iodide (NaI) detector may have a FWHM of

9.15 keV at 122 keV, and 82.75 keV at 662 keV.

These resolution values are expressed in absolute terms.

To express the resolution in relative terms, the FWHM in eV or MeV is

divided by the energy of the gamma ray and usually shown as percentage.

Using the preceding example, the resolution of the detector is 7.5% at

122 keV, and 12.5% at 662 keV.

A germanium detector may give resolution of 560 eV at 122 keV,

yielding a relative resolution of 0.46%.
Detector efficiency:

Not all gamma rays emitted by the source that pass through the detector
will produce a count in the system.

The probability that an emitted gamma ray will interact with the detector
and produce a count is the efficiency of the detector.

High-efficiency detectors produce spectra in less time than low-efficiency

detectors.

In general, larger detectors have higher efficiency than smaller detectors,

although the shielding properties of the detector material are also
important factors.

Detector efficiency is measured by comparing a spectrum from a source of

known activity to the count rates in each peak to the count rates expected
from the known intensities of each gamma ray.

Efficiency, like resolution, can be expressed in absolute or relative terms.

The same units are used (i.e., percentages); therefore, the spectroscopist
must take care to determine which kind of efficiency is being given for the
detector.

Absolute efficiency values represent the probability that a gamma ray of a

specified energy passing through the detector will interact and be detected.

Relative efficiency values are often used for germanium detectors, and
compare the efficiency of the detector at 1332 keV to that of a 3 in × 3 in
NaI detector (i.e., 1.2×10 −3 cps/Bq at 25 cm).

Relative efficiency values greater than one hundred percent can therefore
be encountered when working with very large germanium detectors.

The energy of the gamma rays being detected is an important factor in the
efficiency of the detector.

An efficiency curve can be obtained by plotting the efficiency at various

energies.
This curve can then be used to determine the efficiency of the detector at
energies different from those used to obtain the curve.

High-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors typically have higher sensitivity.

The pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive
decay of 24Na as measured by a NaI(Tl) scintillation detector is shown in
Figure.11.

Na emits only two gamma rays of energies 1.369 and 2.754 MeV.
24

In addition to the two photo-peaks, corresponding to the complete

absorption of the 2.754 and 1.369-MeV gamma rays, several other peaks
are also apparent.

The single and double escape peaks arise from the escape of one and both
0.511MeV annihilation photons generated in the NaI crystal by the
annihilation of positrons created in pair-production interactions.

The annihilation peak is caused by 0.511MeV annihilation photons

produced outside the NaI crystal and subsequently depositing their energy
in the crystal.

The backscatter peak arises from photons scattered from the source
material into the NaI detector.
Fig: Pulse height distribution of the gamma rays emitted by the
radioactive decay of Na as measured by a NaI(Tl) scintillation
detector.

Semiconductor Ionizing-Radiation Detectors

Fig 12: Schematic Diagram of A Semiconductor Detector

Semiconductor detector:

A semiconductor detector in ionizing radiation detection physics is a

device that uses a semiconductor (usually silicon or germanium) to
measure the effect of incident charged particles or photons.

Semiconductor detectors find broad application for radiation protection,

gamma and X-ray spectrometry, and as particle detectors.

Schematic diagram of a semiconductor detector shown in Fig.12.12.

Functioning of these radiation detectors is based upon the newest

technologies.

The impact on radiation detection and measurement has been

revolutionary because of unique semiconductor properties, especially
outstanding energy resolution.
New semiconductor detectors continue to be introduced into the market
place.

Detection mechanism:

In semiconductor detectors, ionizing radiation is measured by the number

of charge carriers set free in the detector material which is arranged
between two electrodes,by the radiation.

Ionizing radiation produces free electrons and holes.

The number of electron-hole pairs is proportional to the energy of the

radiation to the semiconductor.

As a result, a number of electrons are transferred from the valence band to

the conduction band, and an equal number of holes are created in the
valence band.

Under the influence of an electric field, electrons and holes travel to the
electrodes, where they result in a pulse that can be measured in an outer
circuit, as described by the Shockley-Ramo theorem.

The holes travel in the opposite direction and can also be measured.
As the amount of energy required to create an electron-hole pair is known,
and is independent of the energy of the incident radiation, measuring the
number of electron-hole pairs allows the intensity of the incident radiation
to be determined.

The energy required to produce electron-hole-pairs is very low compared

to the energy required to produce paired ions in a gas detector.

Consequently, in semiconductor detectors the statistical variation of the

pulse height is smaller and the energy resolution is higher.

As the electrons travel fast, the time resolution is also very good, and is
dependent upon rise time.

Compared with gaseous ionization detectors, the density of a

semiconductor detector is very high, and charged particles of high energy
can give off their energy in a semiconductor of relatively small
dimensions.

Silicon Semiconductor Detectors:

Si(Li) detectors with thin entrance windows are commonly used in alpha
and beta particle spectrometers.

They can be configured to achieve essentially 100% intrinsic efficiency

and have excellent resolution.

They also offer an inexpensive option for x-ray spectroscopy.

Since Si(Li) detectors have a much lower atomic number than CZT.
NaI(Tl), and hpge, their relative efficiency per unit thickness is
significantly lower for electromagnetic radiation.

However, for x-ray or gamma ray energies less than about 30 keV,
commercially available Si(Li) detectors are thick enough to provide
performance which is superior to CZT, NaI(Tl), and HPGe.

For example, a 3 to 5 mm-thick detector with a thin entrance window has

an efficiency of 100% near 10 keV.

Based upon the fact that a majority of the applications require a thin
window, Si(Li) detectors are often manufactured with very thin beryllium
windows.

Most silicon particle detectors work, in principle, by doping narrow

(usually around 100 micrometers wide) silicon strips to turn them into
diodes, which are then reverse biased.

As charged particles pass through these strips, they cause small ionization
currents that can be detected and measured.

Arranging thousands of these detectors around a collision point in a

particle accelerator can yield an accurate picture of what paths particles
take.
Silicon detectors have a much higher resolution in tracking charged
particles than older technologies such as cloud chambers or wire
chambers.

The drawback is that silicon detectors are much more expensive than these
older technologies and require sophisticated cooling to reduce leakage
currents (noise source).

They also suffer degradation over time from radiation, however this can be
greatly reduced thanks to the Lazarus effect.

Diamond detectors: Diamond detectors have many similarities with

silicon detectors, but are expected to offer significant advantages, in
particular a high radiation hardness and very low drift currents. At present
they are much more expensive and more difficult to manufacture.

Semiconductor Germanium detectors:

There are two main types of germanium semiconductor detectors:

(1) Ge(Li) a germanium crystal doped with lithium ions to cancel the
effect of natural impurities in the germanium crystal, and

(2) the more recent (HPGe) high purity germanium crystal in which
impurity atom concentration are less than 1010 atom/cm3.

The more expensive HPGe detectors have replaced the older Ge(Li)
technology since they can be kept at room temperature when not in use
whereas Ge(Li) crystals must always be kept at liquid nitrogen
temperatures (-196 oC).

Cross-sectional view of a Ge-semiconductor detector shown in Figure13.

Germanium detectors, besides having exceptional energy resolution, are

very efficient for detecting photons.

Their efficiency ranges from excellent for low energy x-rays too good for
medium to high-energy gamma rays over an energy range of 1 keV to 10
MeV.
The performance of these detectors is often compared to NaI(Tl) and
Cd/Zn telluride (CZT) detectors.

Because of the higher atomic number arid larger size, NaI(Tl) detectors
often have a higher efficiency for high energy gamma rays than do
germanium detectors, but a much poorer energy resolution.

The dramatic difference in the energy resolution between NaI(Tl) and

Ge(Li) spectrometers is shown in Figure.14.

Germanium detectors are mostly used for gamma spectroscopy in nuclear

physics, as well as x-ray spectroscopy.

While silicon detectors cannot be thicker than a few millimeters,

germanium can have a depleted, sensitive thickness of centimeters, and
therefore can be used as a total absorption detector for gamma rays up to
few MeV.

These detectors are also called high-purity germanium detectors (HPGe) or

hyperpure germanium detectors.

Before current purification techniques were refined, germanium crystals

could not be produced with purity sufficient to enable their use as
spectroscopy detectors.

Impurities in the crystals trap electrons and holes, ruining the performance
of the detectors.

Consequently, germanium crystals were doped with lithium ions (Ge(Li)),

in order to produce an intrinsic region in which the electrons and holes
would be able to reach the contacts and produce a signal.

HPGe detectors commonly use lithium diffusion to make an n +ohmic

contact, and boron implantation to make a p+ contact.

Coaxial detectors with a central n+ contact are referred to as n-type

detectors, while p-type detectors have a p+ central contact.
The thickness of these contacts represents a dead layer around the surface
of the crystal within which energy depositions do not result in detector
signals.

The central contact in these detectors is opposite to the surface contact,

making the dead layer in n-type detectors smaller than the dead layer in p-
type detectors.

Typical dead layer thicknesses are several hundred micrometers for an Li

diffusion layer, and a few tenths of a micrometer for a B implantation
layer.

The major drawback of germanium detectors is that they must be cooled to

liquid nitrogen temperatures to produce spectroscopic data.

At higher temperatures, the electrons can easily cross the band gap in the
crystal and reach the conduction band, where they are free to respond to
the electric field, producing too much electrical noise to be useful as a
spectrometer.

Cooling to liquid nitrogen temperature (77 K) reduces thermal excitations

of valence electrons so that only a gamma ray interaction can give an
electron the energy necessary to cross the band gap and reach the
conduction band.

Cooling with liquid nitrogen is inconvenient, as the detector requires hours

to cool down to operating temperature before it can be used, and cannot be
allowed to warm up during use.

Ge(Li) crystals could never be allowed to warm up, as the lithium would
drift out of the crystal, ruining the detector.

HPGe detectors can be allowed to warm up to room temperature when not

in use.

Commercial systems became available that use advanced refrigeration

techniques (for example pulse tube refrigerator) to eliminate the need for
liquid nitrogen cooling.
 Fig 13: Cross-sectional view of a Ge-semiconductor detector

The full energy absorption peaks of both NaI(Tl) and Ge detectors can be
approximated as Gaussian shapes, and the width is characterized by the
parameter σ in the general form of Gaussian distribution.

Generally the width is specified in terms of the full width at half maximum
(FWHM), that is, the distance ∆E between the two points E1 and E2 where
F(E1) = F(E2)=A/ 2 where A is a normalization constant, manipulation of
which results in ∆E=2σ√2ln2≅2.35σ.

Often the FWHM is expressed as ratio ∆E/E.

The absolute FWHM (the width of the full absorption peak) increase with
energy, roughly as E1 /2, but the ratio ∆E/E decreases like E−1/ 2.

For a Ge detector at typical value for a good detector is 1.7 keV at 1332
keV ( the energy of the 60Co gamma ray taken as standard for energy
measurement), which would correspond to about 1.2 keV at 662 keV if the
E1/2 dependence is valid.
Fig 14:Comparison of the energy resolution of Ge(Li) and NaI(Tl)
detectors. The gamma-ray source is a mixture of 108mAg and 110mAg

Cadmium telluride and cadmium zinc telluride detectors:

Cadmium telluride (CdTe) and cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) detectors

have been developed for use in X-ray spectroscopy and gamma
spectroscopy.

The high density of these materials mean they can effectively attenuate X-
rays and gamma-rays with energies of greater than 20keV that traditional
silicon-based sensors are unable to detect.

The wide band gap of these materials also mean they have high resistivity
and are able to operate at, or close to, room temperature (~295K) unlike
germanium-based sensors.

These detector materials can be used to produce sensors with different

electrode structures for imaging and high resolution spectroscopy.

However, CZT detectors are generally unable to match the resolution of

germanium detectors, with some of this difference being attributable to
poor positive charge-carrier transport to the electrode.
Efforts to mitigate this effect have included development of novel
electrodes to negate the need for both polarities of carriers to be collected.

Cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) is a new high-resolution and high-atomic

number semiconductor detector material.

A reasonable degree of cooling for the detector and the directly coupled
preamplifier enhances detector system performance.

CZT detectors offer an excellent option for low energy x-ray spectroscopy
where cooling is not possible.

Keeping the detector and preamplifier at about -30 °C, is adequate to

achieve optimum energy resolution.

By contrast, HPGe detectors must be cooled at liquid nitrogen

temperatures to achieve optimum resolution.

These detectors are not available in large sizes. Their small size diminishes
the possibility of making detectors with large efficiencies for high-energy
electromagnetic radiation.

Therefore, the major application is low energy x or gamma-ray

spectroscopy.

Compton Suppression Spectrometer (CSS)

Schematic of Anti-Compton shield

The Clover Detector

Typical cross sectional view of a clover detector.

Cluster detectors

Schematic diagram of Two Cluster detectors

Gamma-Detector Arrays
 The back and the cross-sectional view of the detectors and shielding
system of a typical gamma detector array.

Solved Problems

Problem 1

The 662 keV photon in the decay of 137Cs is observed by a NaI(Tl) detector
with an energy resolution of 53 keV. What will be the resolution for a
measurement of the 1.836 MeV photon in the decay of 90Y?

Solution

Absolute FWHM increases with energy roughly as E1/2.

(662) 1/2 =25.7 and (1836) 1/2 =42.85

42.85
Therefore, 25.7
=1.667

∴ FWHM for 1.836 MeV = 53 x 1.667 = 88 keV

Problem 2

The pulse height spectrum of a radioactive source known to emit only

monoenergetic photons of fairly high energy, shows three prominent peaks
at pulse heights 7.38, 6.49 and 5.60 V. What is the gamma ray energy?
Solution

Separation of the peaks 7.38 V and 6.49 V = 0.89 V

Separation of the peaks 6.49 V and 5.60 V = 0.89 V
This indicates that the 7.38 V peak corresponds to full absorption peak of
the gamma and the peaks at 6.49 V and 5.60 V are the single escape and
double escape peaks.

Therefore, 0.89 V corresponds to 511 keV.

Therefore, 1 V = 511/0.89 = 574.16 keV
Hence, 7.38 V = 4.237 MeV , 6.49 V = 3.726 MeV and 5.60 V = 3.215
MeV
Thus 4.237 – 3.726 = 0.511 MeV and 3.726 – 3.215 = 0.511 MeV
Thus, the energy of the gamma ray is 4.237 MeV.

Problem 3

Calculate the capacitance of a Si detector with the following

characteristics: area:1.5 1.5 cm2, dielectric constant:12, depletion layer:50
microns. What potential must be developed across this capacitance by the
absorption of 4.5 MeV alpha particles which produces one ion pair for
each 3.5 eV expended.

Solution

Silicon detector is equivalent to a parallel plate capacitor.

Therefore, capacitance of the detector ¿ ϵA /d
-12 -4
12 x 8.85 x 10 x 1.4 x 10
= -6
=318 pF
50 x 10

Number of ion pairs produced by α −¿particle

6
4.5 x 10 eV 6
= =1.286 x 10
3.5 eV

Charge associated with these ion Pairs

6 -19 -13
=1.286 x 10 x 1.6 x 10 =2.057 x 10 coul .

Hence potential difference developed across the capacitance is

Q 2.057 x 10-13 -4
V= = =6.5 x 10 volt
C 318 x 10-12
Problem 4

A certain radioactive source gives 3861 counts in a 10 minute counting

period. When the source is removed the background alone gives 2648
counts. In 30 minutes. Determine the net source counting rate and its
uncertainty.

Solution

Source counts for 10 minutes = 3861

Background for 10 minutes = 2648/3 = 879
Net counts = 3861 – 879 = 2982 for 10 minutes.
Net count rate = 2982/10 x 60 = 5 counts/sec
Uncertainty = (3861 + 879)1/2 = 69 = 1.5%

Problem 5

An anthracene crystal and a ten stage photomultiplier tube are to be used

as a scintillation spectrometer. It is desired that a 10 keV beta particle
incident on the scintillator produce a 2 mV pulse on the photomultiplier
output circuit, which has a capacitance of 120 µF . What average electron
multiplication factor per stage is required? Assume a light collection
efficiency of unity and a photocathode efficiency of 0.1.

Solution

Anthracene gives about 15 photons for each 1000 eV expended.

Hence the number of photons emitted for 10 keV = 150
Since the efficiency for light collection = 1 and photo cathode efficiency is
= 0.1,
The number o photo electrons emitted are = 150 x 0.1 = 15
If each dynode produces n electrons (secondary) after passing through 10
stages,
The electrons are multiplied by a factor of n10.
Therefore, the number of electrons in the output = 15 x n10
10 -19
∆q 15 x n x 1.6 x 10
Hence the output pulse ∆V= =
C 120 x 10-12
This is given as 2 mV
-12 -3
n 120 x 10 x 2 x 10 5
Therefore, 10 = -19
= 10
15 x 1.6 x 10

Therefore, n=3.16

Problem 6

A relativistic proton loses 1.8 MeV when penetrating a 1 cm thick

scintillator which produces 1 visible photon/100 eV of energy loss. It is
connected by a light guide w 10%ith 10% transmission to a
photomultiplier (10% efficient) converting the light into photoelectrons.
What is the variation σ in pulse height for the photon.

Solution

The energy loss of the proton in the scintillator is

∆E=1.8 MeV=1.8 x 106 eV per cm path length

Then the mean number of photons produced in the scintillator is

6
1.8 x 10 4
n= =1.8 x 10
100

With a transmission efficiency of 10% and a conversion efficiency of

10%, the number of observed photoelectrons is
4
N =1.8 x 10 x0.1 x 0.1=180

The percentage standard deviation is therefore,

σ= √ =
N 1 1
= =7.5%
N √ N √ 180

Problem 7

At low E/p the drift velocity of electrons in gases, v dr ∝ E/ p. Explain this

fact.
Solution

p eEτ
The electrons acquire an average velocity v dr = =
2me 2 me , in the electric field
E, where τ is the average time-interval between two consecutive collisions.
l l
As τ = v ∝
σ v dr , where l is the mean free path of the electrons in the gas and
dr
σ is the interaction cross section, we have

E E
v dr ∝ ∝
σp p

If σ is independent of velocity.

If σ is dependent on velocity, the relationship would be much more

complicated.

Problem 8

A Geiger counter consists of a 10 mm diameter grounded tube with a wire

of 50 µm diameter at +200 V in the center. What is the electrical field at
the wire and at the tube wall?

Solution

With R 0 =0.5 x 10 m , R i =50 x 10 m, V=200 V , r=25 x 10 -6 m

-2 -6

V 107 V
E (r ) = =1.51 x =151 kV/cm
Electrical field at the wire = rln
R0 m
Ri

Electrical field at the tube wall, ie) at r=0.5 x 10 -2 m is:

V 4 V
E (r ) = =7.55 x 10 =755 V/cm
R0 m
rln
Ri

Problem 9

A proton with total energy 1.4 GeV traverses two scintillator counters 10
m apart. What is the time of flight? If the particle is an electron what is its
time of flight?
Solution
The proton has rest mass m p=0.938 GeV and hence

√
E 1.4 1
γ= = =1.49 , β = 1- =0.74
m p 0.938 γ2

The time o flight is therefore

10
t= 8
=4.5 x 10-8 s=45 ns
0.74 x 3 x 10

An electron with energy 1.4 GeV≫ me c 2=0.511 MeV has β ≈1.

Hence the time of flight is
10 -8
t= 8
=3.3 x 10 s=33 ns
3 x 10

Problem 10

Suppose it is intended to measure the uniformity of the thickness of an

aluminum filter placed perpendicular to an X-ray beam.Using an X-ray
detector and source, equal-exposure transmission measurements are taken
at various points on the filter. The number of counts, N, obtained in 6 trials
were 1.00 x 104, 1.02 x 104, 1.04 x 104, 1.06 x 104, 1.08 x 104, 1.1 x 104.
 Calculate the standard deviation associated with these measurements
 What do the measurements tell you about the uniformity of the
filter?
−µt
 Given that N=N 0 e , how is a fractional uncertainty in N related to a
fractional uncertainty in t?
 For a given number of counts at the detector, would the fractional
error in t larger for small t or large t?

Solution
n
1
 The mean of the counts is N= ∑ N =1.05 x 10 4.
n 1 i
The standard deviation of a reading is

√
n
1
σ= ∑ ( N i - N )2 =0.037 x 10 4
n-1 1
 If the Al foil is uniform, the counts taken at various locations should
follow the Poisson distribution with a standard deviation
∆N= √ N = √1.05 x 10 =0.01 x 10
4 4
 Since the standard deviation of the readings (0.01 x 10 4) is more than
three times ∆ N , the foil cannot be considered uniform.
 Write N=N 0 e as ln N =ln N 0−µ t .
−µt

dN
As N
=−µ t , we have

∆N
=µ∆t
N
∆N ∆t
Or N =µ t( t )

∆t 1 ∆N
 As t =
µt N ,
 For a given set of data, the smaller t is, the larger is the fractional
error o t.

Problem 11

A sample of uranium emitting α-particles of 4.18 MeV is placed near

ionization chamber. Assuming that only 10 particles per second enter the
chamber, calculate the current produced.Given that, 1 ion pair requires
energy of 35 eV, e=1.6 x 10−19 coulomb .

Solution

Energy emitted by α-particles = 4.18 MeV

No.of ion-pairs produced by one α-particle
4.18 x 106 5
= =1.19 x 10 pairs
35
Number of ion-pair produced per second
5 6
¿ 1.19 x 10 x 10=1.19 x 10 ion . pairs/ sec

Current=number of ion. pair produced per second x charge on each ion

= ( 1.19 x 10 ) x ( 1.6 x 10
6 -19
)
=1.904 x 10 -13 A

Problem 12

A G.M.Counter wire collects 108 electrons per discharge. When the

counting rate is 500 counts/minute, what will be the average current in the
circuit?
Solution

Counting rate = 500 counts/min.

The wire collects 108 electrons per discharge
Total number of electrons collected in one min.
n=500 x 108 =5 x 1010
Charge/ min =ne= ( 5 x 10 ) ( 1.6 x 10 ) coul/min
10 -19

Charge ( 5 x 10 )( 1.6 x 10 )
10 -19
= =1.33 x 10-10 Amp.
second 60

Now charge per second gives the average current

−10
Average current=1.33 x 10 Amp .