Recombination Region: In this region, the gas-filled detector operates in a low electric

field strength where the primary mechanism is the recombination of ions and electrons. This
region is typically encountered at low voltages or low gas pressures. The recombination
process reduces the number of ion pairs created by the radiation, resulting in a weaker
signal.
The electric field is not large enough at low voltage to accelerate electrons and ions. The
electrons and ions can recombine soon after they are produced, and only a small fraction of
the produced electrons and ions reach their respective electrodes. As the detector voltage
increases, however, an increasingly large fraction of the ions produced will reach the
electrodes. This increase continues until the “saturation” voltage is attained. The operating
voltage range where this occurs is referred to as the recombination region. Detectors are
not operated in this region because neither the number of recombinations nor the number of
ion pairs initially produced can be determined accurately.

Ionization Region: This region refers to the operating mode of a gas-filled detector where
a strong electric field is applied across the gas volume. In this mode, the ionizing radiation
creates a large number of electron-ion pairs due to the high electric field strength. The signal
generated in this region is proportional to the number of ion pairs produced, providing a
measure of the radiation intensity.
In the ionization region, an increase in voltage does not cause a substantial increase in the
number of ion pairs collected. The number of ion pairs collected by the electrodes equals the
number of ion pairs produced by the incident radiation. It is dependent on the type and
energy of the particles or rays in the incident radiation. Therefore, in this region, the curve is
flat. The voltage must be higher than the point where dissociated ion pairs can recombine.
On the other hand, the voltage is not high enough to produce gas amplification (secondary
ionization). Detectors in the ionization region operate at a low electric field strength, so no
gas multiplication occurs. Their current is independent of the applied voltage. They
are preferred for high radiation dose rates because they have no “dead time,” a
phenomenon that affects the accuracy of the Geiger-Mueller tube at high dose rate

Proportional Region: The proportional region is an operating mode in gas-filled detectors

where a moderate electric field strength is applied. This mode is characterized by the
amplification of the charge carriers (electrons and ions) generated by the ionizing radiation.
The electron avalanche amplification process results in a significant gain in the signal,
allowing for the detection of low-intensity radiation.
In the proportional region, the charge collected increases with a further increase in the
detector voltage, while the number of primary ion pairs remains unchanged. Increasing the
voltage provides the primary electrons with sufficient acceleration and energy to ionize
additional atoms of the medium. These secondary ions formed are also accelerated, causing
an effect known as Townsend avalanches, which creates a single large electrical pulse.
Even though there is a large number of secondary ions (about 103 – 105) for each primary
event, the chamber is always operated such that the number of secondary ions
is proportional to the number of primary events. It is very important because the primary
ionization is dependent on the type and energy of the particles or rays in the intercepted
radiation field. The number of ion pairs collected divided by the number of ion pairs
produced by the primary ionization provides the gas amplification factor (denoted by A). The
gas amplification in this region can increase the total amount of ionization to a measurable
value. The charge amplification process greatly improves the detector’s signal-to-noise ratio
and reduces the subsequent electronic amplification required. The voltage must be kept
constant when instruments are operated in the proportional region. If a voltage remains
constant, the gas amplification factor also does not change. Proportional counter detection
instruments are very sensitive to low levels of radiation. Moreover, proportional counters are
capable of particle identification and energy measurement (spectroscopy). Different radiation
energies and different radiation types can be distinguished by analyzing the pulse height
since they significantly differ in the primary ionization.

Limited Proportionality Region: This region is similar to the proportional region, but the
amplification process is not fully linear. At higher radiation intensities or electric field
strengths, the number of electron-ion pairs produced saturates, leading to a non-linear
response. This non-linear behavior limits the proportionality between the input radiation and
the detector response.
In the limited proportional region, the gas amplification factor does not continue to increase
proportionally to the voltage. Additional ionizations and nonlinear effects cause no
proportionality of the output signal to the deposited energy at a given applied voltage. The
electric field in the chamber is distorted due to the high positive ion concentration. Free
electrons are much lighter than the positive ions; thus, they are drawn toward the positive
central electrode much faster than the positive ions are drawn to the chamber wall. The
resulting cloud of positive ions near the electrode leads to distortions in gas multiplication.
This region is usually avoided as a detection region.

Geiger-Muller Region: The Geiger-Muller (GM) region refers to the operating mode
specific to a GM tube or counter. In this region, the detector operates at a very high electric
field strength. When a single ionizing event occurs, it triggers a self-sustaining avalanche of
charge carriers, resulting in a large output signal. The GM region is used for detecting and
counting individual radiation events.
In the Geiger-Mueller region, the voltage and thus the electric field are so strong that
secondary avalanches can occur. These avalanches can be triggered and propagated by
photons emitted by atoms excited in the original avalanche. Since these photons are not
affected by the electric field, they may interact far (e.g., laterally to the axis) from the primary
avalanche, and the entire Geiger tube participates in the process. A strong signal (the
amplification factor can reach about 1010) is produced by these avalanches with shape and
height independently of the primary ionization and the energy of the detected photon.
Detectors operated in the Geiger-Mueller region can detect gamma rays and all types of
charged particles that can enter the detector. These detectors are known as Geiger
counters. The main advantage of these instruments is that they usually do not require any
signal amplifiers. Since the positive ions do not move far from the avalanche region, a
positively charged ion cloud disturbs the electric field and terminates the avalanche process.
In practice, the termination of the avalanche is improved by the use of “quenching”
techniques. In contrast to proportional counters, the energy of incident radiation particles
can not be distinguished by Geiger counters since the output signal is independent of the
amount and type of original ionization.
 Continuous Discharge Region: The continuous discharge region is encountered at
very high electric field strengths in gas-filled detectors. In this region, the gas becomes
conductive, and a continuous discharge or spark occurs within the detector. This discharge
can damage the detector and is generally undesirable for normal operation. Discharge
Region.
Finally, at still higher voltages (above the Geiger-Mueller region), the electric field generates
a continuous discharge of the medium, with the chamber no longer being sensitive to any
incident ionization. This region is not used for the detection or measurement of ionizing
radiation. Suppose the Geiger tube voltage is increased above the end of the plateau. In
that case, the count rate increases rapidly until the onset of continuous discharge, where the
tube cannot detect radiation and may be damaged.

Scintillation detectors:
Construction:
o A scintillation detector is based material on phosphorescence. It consist of scintillator or
phosphor material optically coupled to a photomultiplier tube which produces pulse of
electric current when light is transmitted to the tube from the scintillator.
o Incident relations interact with the phosphor material. These loss there energy by
causing excitation of molecules. The excited molecules deexcite by the emission of
photon and eject the electron from the cathode surface.
o Photoelectrons will move toward first dynode stage where they will be accelerated and
will have enough kinetic energy to eject electron from other dynodes. The produced
current is million times greater than that of original current and there is no need of
amplifier in case of scintillation detector.
Phosphor Material:
These may include
1) Inorganic salts
Many organic halides which contain small amount of impurities as activator for luminescence.
Mostly NaI or KI is activated by thallium.
2) Crystalline Organic materials
Stilbene, naphthalene, anthracene
3) Solution of organic compound can be used e.g. Ter-phenyl dissolve in xylene
4) High purity gases e.g. Ar, Kr, Xe, N, He

Inorganic Scintillators
o The Scintillation mechanism depends on the structure of the crystal lattice. In a pure
inorganic crystal lattice such as NaI electrons are only allowed to occupy selected
energy bands. The forbidden band or band gap is the range of energies in which
electron can never be found in the pure crystal.
o In the pure crystal absorption of energy can elevate electrons from the valence band to
the conduction band leaving a hole in the valence band. However the return of an
 electron to valence band with the emission of impurities photon is an in efficient process.
Few photons are released per decay. The energy is emitted by other mechanism (heat).
In addition band gap width in pure crystal are such that the resulting emitted photon is
too high to lie within the visible region.
o Small amount of impurities are added to the Crystal such as Tl to the NaI in trace
amount. The impurities are called activators. They create special sites in the lattice at
which the band gap structure, the energy structure is modified. The energy structure of
overall crystal is not changed, just the energy structure at the activator sites.
o At the few activator sites within the sample, the energy structure is modified. Energy
states are created within what would be the forbidden band in the pure crystal. The
electron can deexcite through these level back to the valence band.
o The energy levels created by the activator presence within the Crystal are narrower than
in the pure crystal.
o One photon emitted by the transition of electron from upper to lower sites will be lower in
energy than in the pure crystal. The emission spectrum is shifted to longer wavelength
and will not be influenced by the optical absorption band of the bulk crystal.
o The photons are emitted in the visible range.

A charged particle (e.g. a photo electron) passing through the Crystal will create a large number
of electron hole pairs.
1. The positive hole quickly drift to the location of an activator site the site is ionized. The
activated sites are preferentially ionized because the ionization energy of the activator is less
than a typical lattice.
2. The electron elevated to the conduction band is free to migrate through the Crystal and will
do so until it encounters an ionized activation site.
3. The electron drop into the impurity site, creates a neutral impurity configuration with its own
set of excited state.
4. Excited configuration---- (transistor)--- ground state.
5. De excitation occur quickly with a high probability of photon emission. The activator is
choosen so that the photon is visible.
6. The typical half life of the activator energy states are 10-7 seconds with the migration of the
electron through the Crystal making a much shorter time. The timing of the light output is
therefore dependent on the half life of the state.
PMT:
o Scintillators must be coupled optically to the PMT so that there is high efficiency of light
photons to the PMT photo cathode. Thus PMT are sensitive to light in visible region both
scintillator and PMT must be protected from visible light. T
o he light sensitive photocathod of the PMT is a semi transparent layer of material such as
Cs3Sb which emits electron when struck by visible light. The emitted photo electrons are
accelerated through a series of 10-14 electrodes (dynodes) between which a constant
voltage difference is maintained.
 o When the photo electrons strike the near dynode secondary electrons are emitted as the
dynode are also covered with Cs3Sb.
o Consequently, there is electron multiplication at each dynode stage and at the last
dynode the number of original electrons have been increased by about a factor of 10^6
over at total voltage drop in the photo tube of 1000-2000 volt.
Reflector:
The chamber containing the phosphor material is lined with MgO because the light produced by
the phosphor material due to incident radiation can be absorbed by the lining. So reflectors are
used that will reflect the light so the intensity of radiation will not be lost.
Collimator:
Collimator direct the light towards dynode.
Properties of phosphor material:
1. They must be reasonable probability of absorption of incident radiation. The high density in
solid and liquid scintillator meets this condition.
2. Following absorption emission of luminescence radiations must occur with a high efficiency
and the scintillator must be transparent to its own radiation.
3. These radiations emitted must have a wavelength that falls within the spectral region to which
the PMT is sensitive. This is not always the case particularly with liquids Scintillators.
wavelength shifters are added e.g. diphenyl oxazolbenzene is added to the solution of para ter
phenyl in xylene
4. Quenching substances which absorb the light emitted from the Scintillators should be absent.

Types of Scintillator detector

Gas Scintillator detector:

o Several high purity gases are useful Scintillators e.g. N, He, Ar, Xe, Kr. Except for N
much of the emitted light lies in the UV range hence PMT which is sensitive to UV must
be used.
o The scintillation produced or a very short duration a few many seconds are of very short
duration (a few nanoseconds or less) which puts them among the fastest of radiation
detector. Gas Scintillator have variable size and shape.
o Gas Scintillation detector have mostly limited its use to counting of alpha and other
energetic charged particles (beta are low energy radiations so not used)

Solid Scintillator detectors:

o Solid Scintillation detectors used ZnS(Ag) (Ag is activator) as phosphor material for
alpha detection.
o Anthracene and stilbene can be used for beta particle detection.
o For gamma rays , NaI with a small amount of Tl impurity is the most common phosphor
material. CsI(Tl) is an other used Scintillator.
 o Plastic with incorporated organic Scintillator are often used in nuclear physics
experiments.
o Detectors with scintillation crystals are used commonly for routine radioactivity
measurement particularly of gamma emissions because of their reliability.

Liquid Scintillator detectors:

o They have wide used of routine measurement of beta emitters particularly low energy
like H, He so liquid sample specially in biochemistry and in hospitals.
o Sample is directly dissolve in the Scintillator solution and the light output measured by
PMT.
o Liquid Scintillation counting offers several advantages when measuring low energy and
emitters compared in most other detectors problems like
1. Attenuation by the detector window
2. Self absorption
3. Back scattering are avoided
o However the introduction of the sample into the scintillator medium often reduces the
light output. This effect is called quenching and depends on phenomena such as
chemical reactions that absorb some of the deposited energy known as chemical
quenching. The changing due to optical properties is called colour quenching.
o A reduction in light output reduces the efficiency specially at low beta energies
measurement of alpha emitters is also feasible.
_________________________________________________________________
A scintillation counter or scintillation detector is a radiation detector that uses the effect
known as scintillation. Scintillation is a flash of light produced in a transparent material by
passing a particle (an electron, an alpha particle, an ion, or a high-energy photon). Scintillation
occurs in the scintillator, a key part of a scintillation detector. In general, a scintillation detector
consists of:
 Scintillator. A scintillator generates photons in response to incident radiation.
 Photodetector. A sensitive photodetector (usually a photomultiplier tube (PMT),
a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera, or a photodiode) converts the light to an
electrical signal, and electronics process this signal.
The basic principle of operation involves the radiation reacting with a scintillator, which produces
a series of flashes of varying intensity. The intensity of the flashes is proportional to the energy
of the radiation, and this feature is very important. These counters are suited to measure the
energy of gamma radiation (gamma spectroscopy) and, therefore, can be used to identify
gamma-emitting isotopes.
The operation of scintillation counters is summarized in the following points:
 Scintillati
on Counter-Principle of Operation. Source: wikipedia.org License: Public Domain
Ionizing radiation enters the scintillator and interacts with the scintillator
material, and this causes electrons to be raised to an excited state.
 For charged particles, the track is the path of the particle itself.
 For gamma rays (uncharged), their energy is converted to an
energetic electron via either the photoelectric effect, Compton
scattering, or pair production.
 The excited atoms of the scintillator material de-excite and rapidly emit a
photon in the visible (or near-visible) light range. The quantity is proportional to
the energy deposited by the ionizing particle, and the material is said to
fluoresce.
 Three classes of phosphors are used:
 inorganic crystals,
 organic crystals,
 plastic phosphors.
 The light created in the scintillator strikes the photocathode of
a photomultiplier tube, releasing at most one photoelectron per photon.
 Using a voltage potential, this group of primary electrons is electrostatically
accelerated and focused so that they strike the first dynode with enough energy
to release additional electrons.
 These secondary electrons are attracted and strike a second dynode releasing
more electrons. This process occurs in the photomultiplier tube.
  Each subsequent dynode impact releases further electrons, so there is a current
amplifying effect at each dynode stage. Each stage is at a higher potential than
the previous to provide the accelerating field.
 The primary signal is multiplied, and this amplification continues through 10 to 12
stages.
 At the final dynode, sufficient electrons are available to produce a pulse of
sufficient magnitude for further amplification. This pulse carries information about
the energy of the original incident radiation, and the number of such pulses per
unit of time also gives information about the intensity of the radiation.
A scintillation detector or scintillation counter is obtained when a scintillator is coupled to an
electronic light sensor such as:
 a photomultiplier tube (PMT),
 a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera,
 photodiode
All these devices may be used in scintillation counters, and all convert the light to an electrical
signal and contain electronics to process this signal. A photomultiplier tube (PMT) absorbs the
light emitted by the scintillator and re-emits it in the form of electrons via the photoelectric effect.
The PMT has been the main choice for photon detection ever since because they have high
quantum efficiency and high amplification. Lately, however, semiconductors have begun to
compete with the PMT. The photodiode, for example, has higher quantum efficiency in the
visible range and above, lower power consumption, and smaller size.

Vacuum photodiodes are similar but do not amplify the signal, while silicon photodiodes, on the
other hand, detect incoming photons by the excitation of charge carriers directly in the silicon.

Many portable gamma cameras for medical imaging use scintillator-CCD-based detectors. In

this case, a scintillator converts the incident radiation (X-rays usually) into visible wavelength
photons, which the CCD camera can directly detect.
Note that the term quantum efficiency (QE) may apply to a photosensitive device’s incident
photon to converted electron (IPCE) ratio. The quantum efficiency for the photodiode is high
(60-80%) compared to the PMT (20-30%), which gives a higher energy resolution.

Scintillation Materials – Scintillators

Scintillators are kinds of materials that provide detectable photons in the visible part of the light
spectrum, following the passage of a charged particle or a photon. The scintillator consists of
a transparent crystal, usually a phosphor, plastic, or organic liquid, that fluoresces when struck
by ionizing radiation. The scintillator must also be transparent to its light emissions and have a
short decay time. The scintillator must also be shielded from ambient light so that external
photons do not swamp the ionization events caused by incident radiation. A thin opaque foil,
such as aluminized mylar, is often used to achieve this. However, it must have a low enough
mass to minimize undue attenuation of the measured incident radiation.
There are primarily two types of scintillators commonly used in nuclear and particle physics:
organic or plastic scintillators and inorganic or crystalline scintillators.
Inorganic Scintillators.
Inorganic scintillators are usually crystals grown in high-temperature furnaces. They include
lithium iodide (LiI), sodium iodide (NaI), cesium iodide (CsI), and zinc sulfide
(ZnS). NaI(Tl) (thallium-doped sodium iodide) is the most widely used scintillation material. The
iodine provides most of the stopping power in sodium iodide (since it has a high Z = 53). These
crystalline scintillators are characterized by high density, high atomic number, and pulse decay
times of approximately 1 microsecond (~ 10-6 sec). Scintillation in inorganic crystals is typically
slower than in organic ones. They exhibit high efficiency for the detection of gamma rays and
are capable of handling high count rates. Inorganic crystals can be cut to small sizes and
arranged in an array configuration to provide position sensitivity. This feature is widely used
in medical imaging to detect X-rays or gamma rays. Inorganic scintillators are better at
detecting gamma rays and X-rays than organic scintillators. This is due to their high density and
atomic number, which gives a high electron density. A disadvantage of some inorganic crystals,
e.g., NaI, is their hygroscopicity, a property that requires them to be housed in an airtight
container to protect them from moisture.

Chemical dosimetry
Chemical dosimetry refers to the measurement and assessment of the absorbed dose of
radiation using chemical systems or materials. It involves the use of chemical substances that
undergo measurable changes when exposed to ionizing radiation, allowing for the quantification
of the radiation dose.

Chemical dosimeters are designed to undergo specific chemical reactions or physical changes
in response to radiation exposure. These changes can be quantitatively analyzed to determine
the amount of radiation absorbed. Chemical dosimeters are commonly used in various fields,
including radiation therapy, industrial radiation processing, and radiation protection.

Fricke dosimeters:

A Fricke dosimeter is a type of chemical dosimeter used for measuring ionizing radiation doses.
It is based on a solution containing ferrous (Fe2+) and ferric (Fe3+) ions in an acidic medium.
When exposed to ionizing radiation, the ferrous ions in the solution undergo oxidation,
converting them to ferric ions. The extent of oxidation is proportional to the absorbed dose of
radiation.

The principle behind Fricke dosimetry is that the absorbed dose is determined by measuring the
concentration change of the ferrous ions, which can be quantified using various methods. One
common method is spectrophotometry, where the change in the absorbance of the Fricke
solution at a specific wavelength is measured. The absorbance is directly related to the
concentration of the ferrous ions and thus provides a means to determine the absorbed dose.

Fricke dosimeters are known for their high sensitivity and reliability. They have been widely
used in radiation therapy, industrial radiation processing, and radiation research. However,
Fricke dosimetry requires careful handling and precise measurement techniques to ensure
accurate dose determination.

Ceric sulphate dosimetry:

Ceric sulfate dosimetry, also known as ceric/cerous dosimetry or ceric/cerous sulfate dosimetry,
is a type of chemical dosimetry used for measuring ionizing radiation doses. It is based on the
redox reaction between ceric (Ce4+) and cerous (Ce3+) ions in a solution of ceric sulfate.
In ceric sulfate dosimetry, a solution containing ceric sulfate (Ce(SO4)2) is exposed to ionizing
radiation. The radiation causes the reduction of ceric ions (Ce4+) to cerous ions (Ce3+). The
extent of reduction is proportional to the absorbed dose of radiation.

The reduction of ceric ions to cerous ions can be quantitatively measured using various
techniques. One common method involves titration, where the remaining ceric ions are titrated
with a reducing agent, such as a standard solution of ferrous ammonium sulfate (FAS), until the
endpoint is reached. The amount of reducing agent required to reach the endpoint is then used
to calculate the absorbed dose of radiation.

Ceric sulfate dosimetry is known for its simplicity and cost-effectiveness. It has been widely
used in radiation processing applications, such as gamma sterilization of medical products, food
irradiation, and industrial radiation processes. However, it's worth noting that ceric sulfate
dosimetry has limitations, including sensitivity to certain environmental factors and the need for
careful handling and precise measurement techniques to ensure accurate dose determination.

Principle of spectrophotometer
 The principle of a spectrophotometer is based on the interaction of light with matter,
specifically the absorption or transmission of light by a sample. It measures the amount
of light absorbed or transmitted by a substance as a function of its wavelength.
 The basic components of a spectrophotometer include a light source, a monochromator
or wavelength selector, a sample holder, a detector, and a readout device. Here's a step-
by-step explanation of the principle of a spectrophotometer:
 Light Source: The spectrophotometer utilizes a stable light source that emits a broad
range of wavelengths, typically in the ultraviolet (UV), visible, or infrared (IR) regions of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
 Wavelength Selection: The light emitted by the source passes through a
monochromator, which selects a specific wavelength or a narrow range of wavelengths.
This is achieved by using prisms, diffraction gratings, or interference filters.
 Sample Introduction: The selected wavelength of light then passes through or interacts
with the sample being analyzed. The sample can be a liquid, solid, or gas and may have
a specific container or cell for holding the sample.
 Absorption or Transmission: As the light passes through the sample, it can be absorbed
by the molecules present in the sample, causing a decrease in the intensity of the
transmitted light. Alternatively, the light can be transmitted through the sample without
significant absorption.
 Detection: The spectrophotometer has a detector that measures the intensity of the
transmitted light or the difference in intensities before and after passing through the
sample. The detector converts the light energy into an electrical signal.
 Readout and Data Analysis: The electrical signal generated by the detector is sent to a
readout device, which displays the intensity or absorbance value corresponding to the
selected wavelength. The data can be further analyzed and processed to determine
various parameters, such as concentration, based on the Beer-Lambert law.
 The Beer-Lambert law describes the relationship between the absorbance of light by a
sample, the concentration of the absorbing species, and the path length of the sample. It
 states that the absorbance is directly proportional to the concentration of the absorbing
substance and the path length of the sample.
 By measuring the absorbance or transmission of light at specific wavelengths,
spectrophotometers provide valuable information about the composition, concentration,
and characteristics of a sample. They are widely used in various scientific, industrial, and
biomedical applications, including chemical analysis, pharmaceutical research,
environmental monitoring, and DNA quantification, among others.

Triply distilled water:

 Triply distilled water, also known as triple distilled water, is a type of purified water that
has undergone a specific distillation process to remove impurities and contaminants.
Distillation is a method of purifying water by heating it to create steam, then condensing
the steam back into liquid form, leaving behind impurities.
 In the case of triply distilled water, the distillation process is repeated three times to
ensure a higher level of purity. Each distillation step involves boiling the water, collecting
the steam, and condensing it to obtain purified water. By repeating this process three
times, the concentration of impurities is further reduced.
 The purpose of using triply distilled water is to obtain a highly pure form of water with
minimal impurities, including minerals, dissolved gases, organic compounds, and
microorganisms. Triply distilled water is commonly used in laboratories, scientific
experiments, medical applications, and other situations where a high level of purity is
required.
 It's important to note that while triply distilled water is highly pure, it may not be suitable
for all applications. Distillation removes impurities but may also remove beneficial
minerals present in natural water. Additionally, if the distillation equipment or storage
containers are not properly maintained, contaminants can be introduced. Therefore, the
specific requirements of each application should be considered when choosing the type
of water to use.
 Overall, triply distilled water provides a high level of purity and is commonly used in
situations where stringent water quality standards are necessary.
 Triple distilled water can be used in chemical dosimetry as a high-purity solvent or
reagent. In chemical dosimetry, precise and accurate measurements are crucial, and
any impurities in the solvent or reagent can affect the reliability of the results. Triple
distilled water helps minimize potential interference from impurities, ensuring the
accuracy and reproducibility of the dosimetry measurements.

Purpose of NaCl

 In chemical dosimetry, sodium chloride (NaCl) is commonly used for its role as a
stabilizing agent or supporting electrolyte in certain dosimeter systems. Its presence
serves specific purposes depending on the dosimetry technique being employed.
 In Fricke dosimetry, sodium chloride is often added to the Fricke solution. The Fricke
dosimeter is based on the redox reaction of ferrous ions (Fe2+) to ferric ions (Fe3+)
in response to ionizing radiation. Sodium chloride acts as a supporting electrolyte,
enhancing the conductivity of the solution and facilitating electron transfer during the
redox reaction. It helps maintain a constant ionic strength, which is important for
accurate dose measurements.