ANIMAL FORM

AND FUNCTION
2
By group 9
 OUR Trương Hoàn Mỹ - BTBCIU21054 ( Leader)
Lâm Vân Nghi - BTBCIU21079
Trần Ngọc Giàu - BTBCIU21071
GROUP Nguyễn Võ Minh Ngọc - BTBCIU21082
Nguyễn Trần Thiên Ân - BTBCIU21065
MEMBER Huỳnh Vũ Minh Đăng - BTBCIU21044
 QUESTION 1:
Distinguish between asexual and
sexual reproduction
QUESTION 2:

Explain how hermaphroditism may

be advantageous to animals thay
have difficulty encountering a
member of the opposite sex
 HERMAPHRODITISM

• The condition of having both male and

female reproductive organs.
• Hermaphroditic plants—most flowering
plants
• Hermaphroditic animals—mostly
invertebrates such as worms, snails, slugs

• Rare in human - considered as diseases

Hermaphroditic animals—mostly invertebrates
 v e d i ff ic u l t y e n c o u n t e r i n g
a n i m a l s h a
• The condition when r e i s l o w
o p p o s i t e s e x i s w h e n t he
a member o f t he
l i t y o f a s p e ci e s l i m i t s t h e
or lo w m o b i
population density
o f p o t e n t i a l m a t e s .
number

Sn a i l’s re p ro d uc ti o n
 h a v e a s e le c ti v e a d v a n ta g e :
Th e h e r m a p h r o d it e s m a y
r e s o u rc e s b e t w e e n m a le a n d
th e a llo c a ti o n o f
- Able to adjust
i n o r d e r t o m a x im i z e f it n e s s
fem a l e f u n c ti o n s
th e l i ke l ih o o d o f m e e tin g a
ic p o p u la t i o n
- In a hermaphrodit
iv i d u a ls a r e p o t e n tia l m a t e s
e r b e c a u s e a ll in d
partner is high
a r t n er s , m a n y s im u lt a n e o u s ly
- In the absenc e o f m a ti n g p
t io n o f r ep r o d u c in g t h r o u g h
m a l s h a v e t h e o p
hermaphroditic ani
self-fertilization.
 Small facts: Not all
hermaphrodites are able to
conduct self - fertilization.
Because their testes and ovaries
do not mature at the same time.
 QUESTION 3:
Using diagrams, identify and state the function of
each component of the male and female
reproductive systems.
 a. Male:
1) External parts:
+Pennis:
• A tube or cylinder shape attached
to the abdomen with the glans at the
end.
• Function: transports both urine &
semen out of the body
 a. Male:
1) External parts:
+Scrotum:
• The loose pouch-like sac of skin
that hangs behind the penis.
• Function: -Protects testes, nerves,
blood vessels.
-Plays as a climate control system.
 2) Internal parts: a. Male
+Testicles (testes):
• 2 oval organs inside the scrotum & secured
at either end by a spermatic cord.

• Have coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules.

• Functions: Produce testosterone in Leydig
cells and sperm cells (spermatogenesis) in
seminiferous tubules.
+Urethra
• A :tube inside the penis.
• Functions: -Discharges urine from the body.
-Ejaculates semen.
 2) Internal parts: a. Male
+Epididymis:
• A long, coiled tube attached on the
backside of each testicle.
• Functions:- carries & stores the sperm
- brings up immature sperm.
- leads the sperm into the vas
deferens during sexual arousal.

+Vas deferens:
• A long, muscular tube travelling from the
epididymis to behind the bladder (the pelvic
cavity).
• Functions:transports mature sperm to the
ejaculatory ducts.
a. Male 2) Internal parts:
+Seminal vesicles:
• Sac-like pouches attached to the vas
deferens near the base of the bladder.
• Functions:·provides energy for sperm to
move.

+Ejaculatory ducts:
• The fusion of the vas deferens & the seminal
vesicles towards.
• Empty into the urethra.
• Functions:transports mature sperm to the
urethra for ejaculation.
a. Male 2) Internal parts:
+Prostate gland:
• A walnut-sized structure located below the
urinary bladder in front of the rectum.
• Functions: - Provides fluid for ejaculation.
- Helps nourish the sperm.

+Bulbourethral glands (Cowper’s glands):

• Pea-sized structures located on the sides of the
urethra, below the prostate gland.
• Functions:secrete a clear, slippery fluid to
lubricate & neutralize any acidity in the urethra.
 b. female
1.External parts
+Labia majora (“large lips”):
• 2 folded skins extending down from mons
pubis & surrounding vaginal and urethral
orifices.
• Function: encloses & protects the other
external reproductive organs.
+Labia minora (“small
• Inside the labia majora, surrounding the
lips”):
openings to vagina & urethra.
• Has various sizes & shape and delicate, swollen
easily.
• Function: leads way to vaginal opening.
 b. female
1.External parts
+ Bartholin’s glands:
• Next to vaginal opening on each side.
• Function: secrete a fluid (mucus).

+Clitoris:
• A small, sensitive protrusion where two labia
minora meet.
• Covered by prepuce.
• Function: primary source of female sexual
pleasure.
b. female 2.Internal parts
+ Vagina:
• A canal that joins the cervix to the
outside of the body.
• Function: -Provides a passageway for blood
during period and childbirth.
-Receives & holds the sperm during sexual
intercourse.

+Cervix:
• A narrow structure at the bottom of the
uterus.
• Function: -Produces mucus and
protects against bacteria.
- Allows fluids to drain.
 b. female
2.Internal parts
+Uterus (womb):
• A hollow, pear-shaped, located
between the bladder and the rectum.
• Has two parts: the cervix & the
corpus.
• Function: a home to an embryo & fetus.
+ Fallopian tubes:
• Narrow tubes attached to the upper part
of the uterus
• Function: - Leads egg cell from the ovaries
to the uterus.
- Place for fertilization.
 2.Internal parts
+Ovaries:
• Small, oval-shaped glands located on 2 sides
of the uterus.
• Each ovary contains follicles consisting of an
oocyte, surrounded by support cells.
• Function: Expel eggs & secrete hormones
estrogen & progesterone.

+Mammary glands:
• Located each side of the anterior chest wall.
• Function: secrete milk from small
b. female sacs of epithelial tissue.
 QUESTION 4:
What is spermatogenesis? Describe
the process of spermatogenesis.
 Spermatogenesis is:
• The production of sperm from the
primordial germ cells within the male
reproductive organs, the testes.
• Takes 74 days to reach final maturation.
 SPERMATOGONIAL STAGE
• The mitotic division of these produces two types
of cells:
+ Type A cells replenish the stem cells.
+ Type B cells differentiate into primary spermatocytes.

+ About 9 μm in diameter
 • The primary spermatocyte divides meiotically
(Meiosis I) into two secondary spermatocytes.
• Their nuclei contain slightly denser
heterochromatin materials.
• Synaptonemal complexes in the nucleus
appear during the prophase of meiosis.
• A few mitochondria can be seen tin the
cytoplasm of the cell.
• About 7 μm in diameter.

PRIMARY SPERMATOCYTE STAGE

 Secondary
spermatocyte stage

• Each secondary spermatocyte divides

into two equal haploid spermatids by
Meiosis II.
• About 6 μm in diameter
• Nuclei are coradensed with more dense
heterochromatin materials.
• A few mitochondria, endoplasmic reticula
and small vacuoles are present in the
cytoplasm.
4 PHASES
GOLGI PHASE

ACROSOMAL PHASE

TAIL PHASE

MATURATION PHASE
GOLGI PHASE

• Golgi apparatus produces and releases lytic enzymes that will gather
inside the future acrosome
• At the other end of the spermatid, a mid-piece form.

• The genetic material (DNA) undergoes packaging as protamines replace histones.

• The genetic material is tightly packed, highly condensed, and transcriptionally

inactive.

ACROSOMAL PHASE

• Form the acrosomal cap

 TAIL PHASE

• The microtubules form an axoneme.

• The axoneme contains microtubules that are arranged in a 9 + 2 configuration.
• The developing germ cell orients itself such that the growing tail is directed toward
the center of the lumen of the seminiferous tubule.
 MATURATION PHASE

• The residual cytoplasm has been disposed of.

• The Sertoli cells:
+ Nourish the germ cells attached to them.
+ Responsible for the secretion of the testis-determining factor, which concentrates
testosterone in close proximity and the phagocytosis of the residual
cytoplasm.
• Produce a non-motile mature spermatozoon.
MATURE SPERM CELL
QUESTION 5:

WHAT IS OOGENESIS?
DESCRIBE THE
PROCESS OF
OOGENESIS
 What is oogenesis ?
Oogenesis is the process of formation of female
gametes
The process of oogenesis takes place in the following
three stages:
• Pre-natal
• Antral
• Pre-ovulatory
PRE-NATAL PHASE

• The primary oocyte grows while being arrested

in meiosis-I.

• Granulosa cells secrete glycoproteins to form

zona pellucida around the primary oocyte.

• The follicular cells proliferate and form a

stratified cuboidal epithelium.
ANTRAL STAGE

• The fluid-filled area, present between granulosa

cells, combines to form a central fluid-filled space
called the antrum.

• In every month cycle, these secondary follicles

develop under the influence of follicle-stimulating
hormone and luteinizing hormone.
 PRE-OVULATORY STAGE
• Two haploid cells of unequal sizes are formed
within the follicle.

• One of the daughter cells that receive less

cytoplasm forms a polar body (not participate in
ovum formation)
• The polar body replicates to form two polar bodies.

• The secondary oocyte arrests in the metaphase

stage of meiosis-II.
QUESTION 6:

Explain how the

hypothalamus and the
pituitary glands interact
and how they
coordinate the
endocrine system in
male
HYPOTHALAMUS • The almond-sized hypothalamus is located
below the thalamus and sits just above the
brainstem.
• Its primary function is to maintain homeostasis
(stability of the internal environment) in the body.

• Attached to the hypothalamus, the pituitary Pituitary Gland

consists of an anterior lobe and a posterior

lobe, each of which have distinct functions.
H
Y
P
O
T
H
A
L
A
M
U
S
the pituitary

Gland
 How they work together
• The hypothalamus links the nervous and endocrine systems by way
of the pituitary gland.
 How they coordinate the endocrine system in male?

• The male sex hormone system consists of many substances, of which there
are 4 main types: FSH, LH, Testosterone and Androgen

- FSH hormone in men plays a role in stimulating the development of

the seminiferous tubules and promoting sperm production.

• LH stimulates Leydig cells in the testes to produce testosterone.

 Androgen
Androgen is considered a sex hormone in
men, creating masculinity.

Testosterone

Testosterone is an important hormone for

men
QUESTION 7:
EXPLAIN HOW THE UTERINE
AND OVARIAN CYCLES ARE
SYNCHRONIZED AND
DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF
THE HORMONES INVOLVED.
 • The ovarian cycle: the
preparation of endocrine
tissues and release of
eggs.

• The menstrual cycle: the

preparation and maintenance
of the uterine lining. These
cycles occur with an average
length of 28 days.
FOLLICULAR PHASE

• The follicular phase: Slowly rising

levels of FSH and LH cause the
growth of follicles on the surface
of the ovary

• The growing follicles release

estrogens and a low level
progesterone. Progesterone maintains
the endometrium to help ensure
pregnancy
 FOLLICULAR PHASE

• If pregnancy implantation does not

occur, the lining is sloughed off.

• After about five days, estrogen

levels rise and the menstrual cycle
enters the proliferative phase. The
endometrium begins to regrow,
replacing the blood vessels and
glands that deteriorated during the
Estradiol end of the last cycle.
Progesterone
OVULATION
• Just prior to the middle of the
cycle, the high level of estrogen
causes FSH and especially LH to
rise rapidly, then fall.
• The spike in LH causes the most
mature follicle’s ovulation.
• The level of estrogen decreases
when the extra follicles degenerate.

OVULATION
 • Following ovulation, the ovarian cycle enters
its luteal phase, and the menstrual cycle enters
its secretory phase, both of which run from about day
15 to 28.
• The LH and FSH levels drop, the follicular tissue
turns into corpus luteum (dead follicle) . The corpus
luteum produces estrogen and progesterone.
• The progesterone facilitates the regrowth of the lining
and inhibits the release of further FSH and LH,
preventing any further eggs and follicles from
developing.

LUTEAL PHASE
• The uterus is being prepared to accept a
fertilized egg. If no fertilized egg is implanted
into the uterus, the corpus luteum degenerates and the
levels of estrogen and progesterone decrease, which
also degenerates the endometrium, initiating the next
menstrual cycle.
• The decrease in progesterone also allows the
hypothalamus to send GnRH to the anterior pituitary,
releasing FSH and LH and starting the cycles again.

LUTEAL PHASE
QUESTION 8:
Explain how the
hypothalamus and the
pituitary glands interact and
how they coordinate the
endocrine system in female.
 how the hypothalamus and the pituitary glands interact ?

• Hypothalamus secretes GnRH stimulating anterior pituitary

to produce LH & FSH.
• LH & FSH makes follicles produce estrogen & corpus luteum
produce progesterone.
• Estrogen stimulates pituitary to release LH.
• Estrogen & progesterone inhibits FSH release.
• Ovaries release activin & inhibin to reduce LH/FSH
secretion.
 how they coordinate the endocrine system in female?

+In females:
• FSH helps develop ovarian follicle & promotes estrogen
secretion. is suppressed by prolactin inhibiting hormone (GIH)
• LH stimulates ovulation, estrogen & progesterone secretion.
• Prolactin:
- Is secreted by anterior pituitary, but not affected by
GnRH.
- Is suppressed by prolactin inhibiting hormone (GIH).
- Assists milk production by mammary glands.
QUESTION 9:

Describe some
reasons induce
infertility in male
and female
 a. Infertility in male
Medical causes:
+Varicocele:
• A varicocele is a
swelling of the veins
that drain the testicle.
• It's the most common
reversible cause of
male infertility.

+Hormone imbalances
 Environmental causes:
+Radiation or X-rays:
• Exposure to radiation can reduce sperm production.
• High doses of radiation, sperm production can be
permanently reduced.

+ Industrial chemicals
Health, lifestyle and other causes:
+Alcohol use:
• Drinking alcohol can lower testosterone levels, cause
erectile dysfunction and decrease sperm production.
+Tobacco smoking:
• Smoke may have a lower sperm count than do those who
don't smoke. Secondhand smoke also may affect male
fertility.
Effect of smoking on male fertility
 b. Infertility in female
+ Ovulation disorders:
• Due to problems with the
hypothalamus or the pituitary
gland or the ovary.
• Accounts for most cases of
infertility.

+Polycystic ovary syndrome

(PCOS):
• Causes hormone imbalance.
• Most common cause of
female infertility.
+ Hypothalamic dysfunction:
• Causes mental and physical
changes.

+Damage to fallopian tubes:

• Keep sperm cannot meet
egg.
• Block egg passageway to
the uterus.
+ Endometriosis:
• Occurs when tissue that
typically grows in the uterus
implants and grows in other
places.

+Uterine or cervical causes:

• Can interfere with the egg
implanting or increase the risk of
miscarriage.
QUESTION 10:
List and describe the
functions of hormones
released by ovary and
testis.
 a. Ovary

+Produce and release two groups of

sex hormones—progesterone and
estrogen.
+Three major estrogens: estradiol,
estrone, and estriol.
 a. Ovary
• Estrogen (estradiol, specifically): breast development, fat distribution
in the hips, legs, and breasts, and the development of reproductive
organs.
• To a lesser extent, the ovaries release the hormone relaxing prior to
giving birth.
• Another minor hormone is inhibin, which is important for
signaling to the pituitary to inhibit follicle-stimulating hormone
secretion.
• Progesterone and estrogen are necessary to prepare the uterus for
menstruation.
 b. Testis
+The main hormone is testosterone,
an androgenic hormone.

+The testes also produce inhibin B

and anti-Mullerian hormone, and
estradiol .
 b. Testis
+Testosterone:
• Is the main hormone that promotes the development and maintenance
of male characteristics.
• Can be converted into a more active male sex hormone, called
dihydrotestosterone (DHT).

+Anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH):

• Is important for sex differentiation in the unborn baby during early
pregnancy.
• Produced in male babies by the testes, where it shuts down the
development of Mullerian (female) ducts.
• This allow the development of the epididymis, vas deferens and the
seminal vesicles of the testes.
 b. Testis
+Inhibin B:
• Released from the Sertoli cells in the seminiferous tubules of the
testes.
• Plays a key role in regulating follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
release from the pituitary gland

+Estradiol:
• Is produced in small amounts in men by the Leydig cells.
• Levels of estradiol in the blood of men are similar to (in fact slightly
higher than) those in women after menopause.
• In men, estradiol contributes to bone health and the maturation of
sperm.
THANK YOU FOR
LISTENING!
Don't hesitate to ask any
questions!