entence Relations and Truth

GROUP 3 :
1. A1B220021 Dea Amanda Putri
2. A1B220033 Joni Saputra
3. A1B220035 Wita Rahma Deni
4. A1B220036 Wahyu Widyaningrum
 INTRODUCTION

Many linguists would argue that there is no answer to this question and that in
this it is like the question “what is a number?” “what is grammaticality?
The only true answer to such questions, it is argued, are whole theories (j. d.
fodor 1983 )
1. Synonymous
A is synonymous with B: A has the same meaning as B
Example: a. my brother is a bachelor
b. my brother has never married

2. Entails
A entails B: we know that if A then automatically B.
Example: a. the anarchist assassinated the emperor
b. the emperor is dead

3. Contradicts
A contradicts B: A is inconsistent with B
Example: a. my brother Joni has came from Rome
b. my brother Joni has never been to Rome
4. Presupposes
A presupposes B: B is part of the assumed background against which A
is said.
Example: a. I regret eating your sandwhich
b. I at your sandwhich

5. Tautology
A is a toutology: A is automatically true by virtue of its own meaning,
but informationally empty
Example: a. Island is Island
b. Rich people are rich

6. Contradictions
A is a contradictions: A is inconsistent with itself, i.e assert and
denies the same thing.
Example: a. He is a murder but he is never killed anyone
b. Now isn’t now
 LOGIC AND TRUTH
Richad Montague (1974), have hypothesized that the tools of
logic can help to represent sentence meaning.
The study study of logic, of course comes down from the
Classical Greek world, most famously from Aristotle`s that is:

3. Hypothetical syllogism
1. Modus ponens
example : a. If Arnd is in the pub, then he is
example : a. If Arnd left work early, then he is
drinking beer.
in the pub.
b. If Arnd is drinking beer, then he is
b. Arnd left work early
drinking Guinness.
c. Arnd is in the pub c. If Arnd is in the pub, then he is
drinking Guinness
2. Modus tollens
4. Disjunctive syllogism
example : a. If Arnd has arrived, then he is in
example : a. Arnd is in e public bar or he is in the
the pub.
lounge.
b. Arnd is not in the pub.
b. Arnd isn’t in the public bar
c. Arnd has not arrived c. Arnd is in thje lounge.
Semantics call a sentence’s being true or false its truth value, and
truth condition is the fact that would have to obtain in reality to
make a sentence true or false.
• A linguistic effect on truth value comes from negating a
sentence.
a. Your car has been stolen
b. Your car has not been stolen
That relationship works for any statement, logicians use a schema
called Logical Form.

• The truth value of other linguistic elements is a compound formed

by using and to join two statements is predictable from the truth
of the constituent statement. Example :
a. The house is on fire
b. The fire brigade are on the way
c. The house is on fire and the fire brigade are on the way
 2 Logical connectives which can
correspond to English or:
1. Disjunction ( inclusive or) :thus a compound
created if one or both of the constituent sentences
is true. Example : I’ll see u today or tomorrow
2. Exclusive or is only true if just one of its
disjuncts is true. Example : You will pay the fine or
you will go to jail
 Necessary Truth, A Priori Truth and Analyticity
The notion of empirical truth depends on a correlation to states of affairs in reality.
Philosophers and logicians have identified another type of truth which seems instead to be a
function of linguistic structure. For example, tautology: My father is my father.
is always true (in its literal meaning)

4.40 Either he's still alive or he's dead.

4.41 She was assassinated last week but fortunately she's still alive.

This second kind of truth has been the focus of much investigation. For example, we started.
out by characterizing this type of truth in cpistemological terms, i.e. in terms of what the
speaker knows (or needs to know before making a judge ment about truth).
 Priori is the truth that is known before or without experience has traditionally.

Another related concept is Leibniz's distinction between necessary truths, which cannot be
denied without forcing a contradiction, and contingent truths, which can be contradicted,
dipending on the facts. In other related terminology tautologies like 4.39 are analytic while a
sentence like my father is a sailor is synthetic. Thus we have three related distinctions of truth:
between a priori and a posteriori, necessary and contingent and analytic/synthetic.

Example of analytic truth as synonymous terms to describe sentences which are true by virtue of
their meaning

a. Either Germany will win the world cup or Germany won't win the world cup
b. If germany are champions and Brazil are runners-up the Germany are champions
c. All teams who win are teams
d. If germany beat Brazil the Brazil lose to Germany.
4.43 Either p or not-p

This formula will be true for any clause, as long as each clause is the same, represented
above by using the same letter. For example:
4.44 Either we'll make it on time, or we won't make it on time.
Similarly, sentence 4.4
 
4.45 If p and q then p

Once again whatever clauses we use for p and q the formula will be true, c.g.
4.46 If the house is sold and we aren't there, the house is sold.
 ENTAILMENT
There are fixed truth realition between sentences which hold
regardless of the empirical truth of the sentences, and to examine
it by looking at the semantic relations of entailment.

Example : a. The anarchist assasinated the emperor (P)

b. the emperor died (Q).

A. Composite trut table for entailment.

P Q

T T

F T or F

F F

T or F T
B. According to the linguistic structure of entailment relation consist of two sources :

a. Lexical ( a word that symbolizes a meaning ) : hyponimy ( special word)

b. syntactic ( passive and active)

e.g. active : The Etruscans built this tomb

Passive: This tomb was built by Etruscans.

C. Characterizing the truth relation entailment in semantic :

a. synonim Composite truth table for synonim
P Q

T T examples: (P) Alice owns this book.

F F (Q) This book
T T belongs to Alice.
F F
b. contradiction.
P Q
Example : (P) Mr Jones stole my car
T F ( Q) Mr Jones did not steal my car
F T
T F
F T
 Presupposition
A.definition of Presupposition

A presupposition is something that you assume to be true when you see a senterice.
Esppecially something which you must assume is true in order to continue with what you are
saying of thingking.

Examples :
a. Her husband is a teacher
b. She has a husband.

a. The President of Rusia is in Japan this week

b. Rusia has a president.
B. The Two appraches to presupposition.

1. Semantic approach.
In the this approach, rather in tradition, Sentences are Viewed the philosophical as external objects: We don’t worry
too much about the process of producing them, or individuality of the speaker or writer and their audience.
Example:
a. John’s brother has just got back from Texas
b. John has a brother.

2. Pragmatic approach.
This approach Views sentences as the utterances of Individuals engaged engaged in a communication act.

2.1 Presupposition as a truth realition:

Step 1 : If P ( the prosupposition sentence ) is true then q ( the presupposied sentence ) is true.
Step 2 : If p is false, then q is still true.
Step 3 : If q is true, p could be either tru or false.
2.2 a first composite truth table for presupposition

P q

T T
F T
T or F T
C. Presupposition failure.

One phenomenon caused problems for a truth relations approach but

may be less problematic in an interactional approach.

Examples :
a. The king of france is kind.
b. There is aking of france.

⬇
a. The king of france is kind
b. There is no king of france.
D. presupption triggers.

Is types of presupposition are produced by particular words or Constructions.

a. Cleft Construction and Pseudo-cleft.

Example :
-It was his behaviour with frogs that disgusted me.
- what disgusted me was his behaviour with frogs.
- Something disgusted me.

b. Time adverbial clauses

Example :
- I was riding motorcycles before you learned to walk
» - you learned to walk

c. Comparative clauses.
Example : - He is even more gullible than you are.
»- you are gullible.

d. Factive verb ( regret & relize)

Example : - Sean realize that Miranda had dandruff
- Sean thought that Miranda had dandruff
>> - Miranda had dandruff.
E. Presuppositions and context.

As mentioned earlier, one problem for a simple truth -based account of presupposition is
that often the presuppoSitional behavior Seems Sensitive to context. One of example
the type of presupposition Usually triggered is by time adverbial clauses.

Example :
- She Cried before she finished her thesis
»- She finished her thesis

However, if we change the verb as in below. The Presupposition is Longer Produced.

- She died before she finished her thesis

>>• She finished her thesis.
Thank You For Your
Attention