UNIT 1: Word Order and Sentence Patterns

Word order or syntax is quite an essential part of the grammatical

structure of any language. Word order means the way how words
are arranged in a sequential or logical order to form a meaningful
phrase, clause, or sentence.
1. Jumbled order
Exercise
Rearrange the words into meaningful sentences
1. speaks/English/he/well.
2. students/read/stories/will/the/some.
3. lost/girl/the/has/pen/hers.
4. Jane/the/recited/school/at/poem/yesterday.
5. brought/her/John/a/present.
Answers
1. He speaks English well.
2. The students will read some Stories.
3. The girl has lost her pen.
4. Jane recited the poem at school yesterday.
5. John brought her a present.
 Basic Terms

1. Subject
A subject is a part of a sentence that contains the person or
thing performing the action (or verb) in a sentence.
Ex: - She teaches
Singular Subjects
She, he, it, cat, house
Plural Subjects
They, Cats, houses

2. Verb
A verb is the action or state of being in a sentence.
Ex: - She teaches
3. Subject verb agreement
A singular subject takes a singular verb.
A plural subject takes a plural verb.
Ex: - She teaches
He sings
Girls play
4. Complement
A thing that contributes extra features to something. Or
Something about the subject
Ex: - She is beautiful
2. Basic Sentence Structures

1. SV - Subject + verb
Examples
 Raju plays
 Boys play
 She plays
 Raju is running

2. SVO – Sub + Verb + Object

Examples
 Raju killed Radha
 A lion killed a deer
 Anu is eating mandhi

3. SVC – Sub + Verb + Complement

Examples
 Rose is beautiful
 Sheela is a singer
 Raju is a sports man

4. SVOC– Sub + Verb +Object + Complement

Examples
 I will make the pizza next time
 The students sang the song loudly
5. SVOO– Sub + Verb +Indirect Object + Direct object

Examples
 The teacher gave him a present
The teacher – S
Gave – v
Him – Indirect object
Present – Direct Object

Identify the sentence patterns in the following sentences.

1. Birds fly. S + V
2. Latha sang a song. S+V+O
3. Jane reads her sister a story. S+V+IO+DO
4. The girl sings loudly. S+V+C
5. He lost his watch. S+V+O
6. They play in the park. S+V+C
7. The river flowed swiftly. S+V+C
8. Tomy fell off the swing. S+V+C
9. Ashly learned to ride a bike. S+V+O+C
10. My aunty watches horror movies. S+V+O
Exercise 2:
Make at least two sentences of your own for the following
sentence patterns:

1. SVOO – John told the crew a story

2. SVC – They are singers
3. SV – Anu eats
4. SVO – Appu is playing cricket
5. SVOC – The singers sang the song perfectly
 UNIT 2: Concord or Subject Verb Agreement
1. Rule 1 :-
Subject & verb must agree in number.
Subject – S, Verb – S
Subject P, Verb – P
 He plays cricket
 They play cricket
 She writes book
 They write book.
2. Rule 2:-
Two or more nouns or pronouns joined by and use the verb as plural

Noun
Pronoun
Name of a person, thing or
place Used to replace a noun

Ex: - Anu, Table, Thrissur Ex: - She, He, It, They etc.

 Anu and Tony walk to the park.

 Renu and Reena dance very well.
 He and his Friends are at the park.

Singular Verbs Plural Verbs

Is Are
Has Have
Plays Play
was Were
3. Rule 3:-
Either /or
Singular verb.
Neither/nor

Either/Or
For connect things
which are same type
Ex: - Either Ram or
Rita sings song
Neither/Nor
For connect two or more
negatives alternate
Ex: - There was neither food
nor drink

 Neither his sister nor his mother is dancing for the party
 Our teacher speaks neither loudly nor softly
 Either the student or the teacher attends the meeting
4. Rule 4:-
Begins with one of the plural noun → verb will be singular.
 One of the girls is absent

Plural Verb (singular)

 One of the flowers smells like rose.
5. Rule 5:-
Here, there -> verb -> according to the Succeeding Subject.
 Here are the mangoes.

 There is a big track

 Here is Name in a phone

6. Rule 6:-
Each, Each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anyone,
anybody, nobody, Somebody, Someone, No one
We consider all these Singular.
↓
∴ It requires
↓
Singular verb.

 Each of the students was provided a training

(Was/were)
 Everyone has entered the ball.
(Has/have)
7. Rule 7:-
o Sums of money
o Period of time
o Distance
↓
Single unit
↓
Singular verb
 10,000 rupees is a huge amount.
 15 km is too far from here.
8. Rule 8:-
Uncountable > Singular verb.
 Water is transparent
 Love is the foundation of family
9. Rule 9:-

A lot of
All of
Some of
↓
Singular Noun > singular verb
Plural noun > plural verb.

 All of the students are good

↓ ↓
Plural Plural
Noun Verb
 Some of the apple is green.
↓ ↓
Singular Singular
Noun Verb

10. Rule 10:-

Collective nouns.
(Considered singular)
↓
Singular Verb

 The group meets in the hall.

↓ ↓
Plural but Singular
Singular Verb

11. Rule 11:-

Mathematics
Civics Singular noun
News ↓
Singular verb.
 Mathematics is very good subject
↓ ↓
Singular Singular
Noun Verb
 The news is really heart touching.
12. Rule 12:-
Subject → as well as along with besides -> Singular verb.
 Manav as well as Anu is expected shortly.

Exercise:
Choose the correct subject verb combinations in the 2 sentences
below.
1. The man in the car (look/looks) like your brother.
2. Most of the sugar (is/are) gone.
3. One of the boys (has/have) not attended the exam.
4. Mathematics (is/are) her favourite subject.
5. The bunch of ripe grapes (looks/look) beautiful.
6. Either Pranav or Shyam (is/are) traveling today.
7. Here (is/are) the newspaper.
8. He along with his parents (was/were) going to the market
9. He as well as his friends (is/are) playing cricket.
10. Cats and dogs (does/do) not get along.
11. On the table (was, were) a pen, a pad of paper, and two rulers.
12. Either you or Maya (is, are) to be asked to preside at the meeting.
13. The team (has, have) reached a decision.
14. I (see, sees) your uncle and your cousin coming down the street.
15. There (is, are) many opportunities for part-time employment on
campus.
16. (Is, Are) algebra and chemistry required courses?
17. One of his three instructors (has, have) resigned.
18. (Do, Does) either of the coaches expect the team to win the
game?
19. Neither I nor my sisters (expect, expects) to graduate in June.
20. Two teaspoons of sugar (is, are) needed in this recipe.
21. (Is, Are) there enough copies of the music to go around?
22. It (doesn't, don't) look like a snowman.
23. Economics (is, are) a complex but fascinating subject.
24. Either the leader or his followers (doesn't, don't) understand the
instructions
25. A herd of cattle (was, were) grazing on the hill.
26. The set of rules (control, controls) the game.
27. Neither the boss nor her assistant (was, were) present.
28. Here (is, are) an old and famous landmark.
29. Riaz, along with his father, (is, are) attending the game.
30. One often (ask, asks) for help from others.
 Unit 3

The sentence and Types of sentences

We use different types of sentences for different purposes

and accordingly, they can be categorized as the followings:
1. Declarative/Assertive Sentences
2. Interrogative Sentences
3. Exclamatory Sentences
4. Imperative Sentences

1. Assertive sentences / Declarative sentence.

Opinion
Statement
Declaration
Or describe things.
This sentence begins with a subject & ends with full stop.
 She is a good teacher.
 His father was a lawyer.
 They don't pay football.
2. Interrogative sentences
To asks a question
So end with a question mark (?)
1. W/H Questions.
2. Yes/No Questions.
W/H Questions
1. Where are you going?
2. Who are you?
3. What is your name?
Yes No Questions.
1. Do you have car?
2. Have you ever broken a law?
3. Are you scared of heights?

3. Imperative Sentences
Request
Command
Order
Wish.
Start with → Please kindly, Let us or Verb
 Please give me a pencil → Request
 Don't go now → command
 Call him → command
 Come here → order
 Let us go for a walk → wish

4. Exclamatory sentences.

Excitement
Emotion
Happiness Always carries an exclamation mark (!)
Sorrow
Anger

 We won!
 What a cate puppy!
 What a happy ending!
 I love you!
 Unit 3 Exercises
Exercise 1:

Identify the types of sentences:

1. Are you going abroad? - Interrogative

2. Beans are a highly efficient form of nutrition. - Declarative
3. Bring me that file. - Imperative
4. Do your homework. - Imperative
5. Don't be carried away with the idea. - Imperative
6. He does not care about his health. Declarative
7. How hard she works! - Exclamatory
8. Who could defend such a view? Interrogative
9. How strange they look! Exclamatory
10. How time flies! Exclamatory
11. How well she sings! Exclamatory
12. What a time we've had! Exclamatory
13. Make me an offer. Imperative
14. Meera is a successful writer. Declarative
15. On which days does this shop open 24 hours? Interrogative
16. People who throw stones shouldn't live in greenhouses
Imperative
17. Please get me some cookies. Imperative
18. Should the government reduce its deficit by raising
income taxes or by cutting expenditure? Interrogative
19. We are pleased to meet you. Declarative
20. We rebuilt the kitchen in just four weeks. Declarative
21. What a good show it was! Exclamatory
22. What a super movie! Exclamatory
23. When do you start your work? Interrogative
24. This generation has never had it so good. Declarative
25. He can resist everything except temptation. Declarative
 Unit 4
Types of sentences based on clause Structure

Clause = Subject + verb

Sentence

Subject Predicate
 Nikhil bought a car
One clause sentence
Subject Predicate (one V)
 Nikhil bought a car, he distributed sweets
Two clause
S V S V sentence
 When Nikhil bought a car, he gave sweets to his
neighbours and they greeted him.
 When Nikhil bought a car, he gave sweets to his

S V S V Three
Clause
Neighbours and they greeted him.

S V
Two types of clauses
1. Principal / Independent clause
2. Subordinate / Dependent clause

 Principal / Independent clause

Sam plays football.

S V
 Subordinate / Dependent clause
Three Types
1. Adjective clause or Relative clause.
This is a resort that we saw in the advertisement.
↓
S Adjective

Adjective - Word naming an attribute of a

noun.

2. Adverb clause/ Adverbial clause

Here we use connectors or subordinators like
because, as if, although, until etc. to stress the
verb
 We spent a lot of money as if we were rich.
 I bought S23 ultra phone because I like android
phones.
 3. Noun clause
That, who, when, which, where, whether, why,
how etc. to stress on Noun
 What we saw in Tvm zoo was amazing.

Types of sentences
1. Simple sentence
Only one independent clause
 They are playing football
There will be one subject one verb and provide
complete idea.
2. Compound sentence
Two or more independent clauses
So here we use conjunctions to connect two
independent clauses (like, but, because, but, or, yet, so)
 Leela loves mango but her sister loves apple
3. Complex sentence
One independent clause and one dependent clause
 I saw a woman, who was crying.
4. Compound complex sentence
Two independent clauses one or more dependent clause
 My friend couldn’t come to the party because he was
ill, so I was unhappy.
My friend couldn’t come to the party- IC
He was ill – IC
So I was unhappy- DC
 Unit 5
Transformation of sentences

Types of sentences
1. Declarative – Express an opinion and
ends with full stop. (.)
2. Interrogative – Questions and ends
with question mark (?)
3. Imperative – To request, order or
command ends with full stop (.)
4. Exclamatory – Over flow of emotions
ends with exclamation mark (!)

Splitting of verbs
Play – Do + Play
Played – Did + play
Plays – Does + play
 The transformation of a sentence means
changing its form without changing the sense
or meaning of the sentence.
1. To transform a declarative sentence into an
interrogative sentence.
a) A declarative sentence can be converted to
an interrogative by placing the verb before
the subject.

 She is smart. (Declarative)

 Is she smart? (Interrogative)

b) When a declarative sentence has two

verbs- helping verb and main verb, it can be
changed into interrogative by putting the
subject between the two verbs.

 He has completed the work.

(Declarative)
He – Subject
Has – Helping verb
Completed main verb
 Has he completed the work?
(Interrogative)
 c) When a declarative sentence has the
adverb never, it becomes ever in an
interrogative sentence.

 I never asked him to help me.

(Declarative)
 Did I ever ask him to help me?
(Interrogative)

d) When a declarative sentence contains the

adverb no, it becomes any in the
interrogative sentence.

 There is no fun in doing that.

(Declarative)
 Is there any fun in doing that?
(Interrogative)
2. To transform an interrogative sentence into an
assertive sentence:
An interrogative sentence can be converted into an
assertive/declarative sentence by changing the
positions of verb and subject.
  Was he attending the interview? (Interrogative)
 He was attending the interview. (Declarative)

 Isn't she very kind? (Interrogative)

 She is very kind. (Declarative)

 Shall I ever forget those happy days?

(Interrogative Sentence)
 I never forget those happy days. (Declarative
Sentence)

3. To transform an exclamatory sentence into an

assertive sentence:
 How beautiful she is! (Exclamatory)
 She is very beautiful. (Declarative)

 What a delicious meal! (Exclamatory)

 This meal is a delicious one. (Declarative)

4 To transform a declarative sentence into an

exclamatory sentence:
 The mangoes are very delicious. (Declarative)
 How delicious the mangoes are! (Exclamatory)
5. To transform an imperative sentence into an
assertive sentence
a) An imperative sentence that shows a request can be
changed to a declarative by using 'You are requested
to.' for an affirmative sentence and 'You are requested
not to' for a negative sentence.
 Please, get me a glass of water. (Imperative)
 You are requested to get me a glass of water.
(Declarative)

 Please, don't forget to bring my notebook.

(Imperative)
 You are requested not to forget to bring my
notebook. (Declarative)

b) If an imperative sentence states an order or advice,

we can use 'should/must' to transform it into a
declarative sentence.

 Wear a mask when you go out. (Imperative)

 You should wear a mask when you go out.
(Declarative)
  Don't break the rules. (Imperative)
 You must not break the rules. (Declarative)

c) When an imperative sentence begins with 'Let', then

we can use 'should' to convert it to a declarative
sentence.
 Let us obey our parents. (Imperative)
 We should obey our parents. (Declarative)

 Let him not drive fast. (Imperative)

 He should not drive fast. (Declarative)
6. To transform an imperative sentence into an
interrogative sentence:
 Stop talking. (Imperative)
 Will you stop talking? (Interrogative)

 Ask Susan to come here. (Imperative)

 Will you please ask Susan to come here?
(Interrogative)
7. Changing interrogative to imperative sentence.
 Will you manage this class? (Interrogative)
 Manage this class. (Imperative)

 Will you open the door? (Interrogative)

 Open the door. (Imperative)

Exercise:
Change the type of sentences as indicated in the
bracket.
1. It is a lovely rose. (Exclamatory)
2. Bravo! A nice kick. (Assertive)
3. They keep dogs. (Interrogative)
4. Will you lend me your book? (Imperative)
5. Show me your house. (Interrogative)
6. She never goes out when it is raining. (Interrogative)
7. Is she your friend? (Declarative)
8. The Taj is really wonderful. (Exclamatory)
9. Can the dumb speak? (Declarative)
10. You are requested to open the window.
(Imperative)
 Unit 6
Affirmative and Negative sentence

We can follow simple rules to transform positive Sentences into

negative sentences without changing the meaning.

1. Many affirmative sentences can be changed to negative by

adding the word 'not' with an auxiliary verb and using the
opposite form of the main verb.

 The medicine is cheap. (Affirmative)

 The medicine is not expensive. (Negative)

 We found the hotel very good. (Affirmative)

 We did not find the hotel very bad. (Negative)

2. If there is "always" in an affirmative sentence, we can

transform it to "never" and use the opposite word of the verb,
adjective, and noun in a negative sentence.

 I will always remember my mother's advice. (Affirmative)

 I will never forget my mother's advice. (Negative)

 He is always present in Maths class. (Affirmative)

 He is never absent in Maths class. (Negative)

3. "Sometimes" in an affirmative sentence, will be changed to

"not always" in a negative sentence.
  He sometimes smokes at parties. (Affirmative)
 He does not always smoke at parties. (Negative)

 The rich are sometimes ready to help others. (Affirmative)

 The rich are not always ready to help others. (Negative)

4. "Must/have to/can" in an affirmative sentence, will become

"cannot but / cannot but help" in a negative sentence.

 He must take the vaccine to be protected from covid

(Affirmative)
 He cannot but take the vaccine to be protected from covid
(Negative)

 I have to build a new house in this location. (Affirmative)

 I cannot but build a new house in this location. (Negative)

5. "Too...to" in affirmative becomes "so...that..+ cannot+verb" in

negative.

 He is too old to work. (Affirmative)

 He is so old that he cannot work. (Negative)

6. "As soon as" in affirmative becomes "No sooner had..than" in a

negative sentence.

 As soon as the teacher entered, the students stood up.

(Affirmative)
 No sooner had the teacher entered than the students
stood up. (Negative)
7. An affirmative sentence with "Everybody" can be changed into
negative by using "Nobody" and the opposite of the verb and
adjective.
 Everybody likes flowers. (Affirmative)
 Nobody dislikes flowers. (Negative)

8. "And/both" in an affirmative sentence will be changed to "not

only...but also" in a negative sentence.
 He ate eggs and vegetables. (Affirmative)
 He ate not only eggs but also vegetables. (Negative)

9. "All" in affirmative may change to "None" and the opposite of

the verb in negative.

 All the students liked the program. (Affirmative)

 None of the students disliked the program. (Negative)

10. Some more common patterns are there for transforming

affirmative into negative without changing the meaning of the
original sentence.
 Kolkata is hotter than Mumbai. (Affirmative)
 Mumbai is not as hot as Kolkata. (Negative)

 Akbar was the greatest of the Mughal

Emperors.(Affirmative)
 No other Mughal Emperor was as great as Akbar.
(Negative)
Exercises:
Change the following sentences into negative:
1. Rani is honest.
2. I will always remember my friends.
3. Hari is the best student.
4. As soon as the principal arrived the noise stopped.
5. A giraffe is taller than an elephant.
6. Everybody was present for the meeting.
7. My grandfather is always on time.
8. Your handwriting is illegible.
9. She is too poor to afford it.
10. Only good players will be successful.
 Unit 7
Connectives
Connectives are those words or phrases used to
link clauses or sentences together. Connectives
are frequently used in written and spoken English.
They are often overlooked as 'smaller' functional
words that would link our writing together) they
are the glue of the literary world which connects
our words and lead on from one to another
without sounding awkward. Essentially, we won't
be able to speak or write in full sentences without
connectives.

Adding Time Cause Contrasting

And Next Because However
Moreover Then Therefore Alternatively
Also Finally So Although
As well as Meanwhile Consequently Except
furthermore eventually As a result of unless
Connectives in English commonly come under three
categories: Conjunctions, Adverbs, and Prepositions.
1. Conjunctions
A. coordinating conjunctions
 Conjunction serves to connect words, phrases,
clauses, or sentences together.
 The common conjunctions like and, but, for, or,
nor, so, and yet are called coordinating
conjunctions as they link words, phrases, and
clauses of equal rank.
 Ex – We plan to go the exhibition, but we may be
late
 For, and, nor, or, yet, so, still, besides, otherwise,
or else, nevertheless etc.
B. subordinating conjunctions
 They are used to connect clauses of unequal
rank.
 Ex- When you go for a picnic, you will need to
take the first aid box.
 Although, because, since, while, after, before,
until, as soon as, if, unless, provided that,
wherever, as long as, so that, in order that,
though etc.
2. Conjunctive Adverbs
A conjunctive adverb is also used to show the
relationship between two clauses.
 Ex: His behaviour is not really good; moreover,
his work so far is very poor.
 Getting a doctoral degree is pretty tough; however, I
think you could do it.
3. Prepositions
Prepositions are used to show connections between
ideas within clauses.
 Ex- Our Company made a profit after three years of
losses
 He could take part in the event despite the lack of
money.
 Maria could not attend the training because of
illness.
 In spite of studying very well, he didn't score good
marks in the midterm.
 Unit 8

Collocations
 The word collocation can be defined as the act or result
of placing or arranging together.
 A collocation is a combination of two or more words
that are commonly placed together in English.

Examples

1. Make a phone call

2. Do the shopping
3. Pay attention.
4. Potential problem
5. Silence please
6. Rigorous discrepancy.
7. Principal Cause
8. Salient Features.
9. Raise your bands.
10. A broad Summary.

Strong Collocations

 Make a phone call Strong collocation

 Do a phone call
 Prepare a phone call Weak collocations
 Start a phone call
 Collocations with make
 make a cup of tea
 make noise
 make the bed
 make a note
 make sense

Collocations with Do
 Do the laundry
 Do the home work
 Do business with someone.
 Do a chore
 Do the shopping.

Business collocations
Verb/Noun/Adjective/Adverb + Business keyword
 Open an account
 Make money
 Annual turnover
 Cash flow

1. Verb – Word to describe an action

Play, work etc.
2. Noun – Person ,place thing
3. Adjective – used to modify the noun
The test was easy
4. Adverb – Used to modify the verb
I took it easily
5. Prepositions- It, on, of, with on etc.
 Adjective and Noun
 Bad Mood
 Beautiful garden
 Major problem
Verb and noun
 Created opportunities
 Do exercise
 Tell a lie
Nouns and Nouns
 Sports car
 Report card
 Comfort zone
Verbs and prepositions
 Apologize for
 Admitted to
 Filled with
 Working on
Adverb and Adjective
 Happily married
 Fully aware
 Deeply affected
 Unit 9

Punctuations
Punctuation can be defined as the system of signs or
symbols that we use to separate written sentences and
parts of sentences to make their meaning clear and
each symbol is known as a "punctuation mark.
1. Period (.)
A period or full stop marks the end of a sentence and
while reading we need to pause after a full stop.
 I saw a movie yesterday.
 London is a busy city.
 Annie is an excellent scholar.
A period is used to end an abbreviation or between the
letters of an abbreviated word.
 Mr. James won’t be attending the meeting.
 Cabbage, carrot, brinjal, etc. are vegetables.

2. Comma (,)
Comma represents a much shorter pause than a full
stop. It is used to separate the different parts of a
sentence or names in a list.
Uses of comma
1. A comma is used to separate three or more items
in a list or series.
 Our history class will be on Monday, Wednesday,
and Friday.
2. Used to separate independent clauses that come
before dependent clauses.
 As it rained heavily, we couldn't go to the beach.
3. Used after introductory words or phrases in a
sentence.
 Certainly, I have done my work perfectly.
4. Used to set off dates and addresses.
 My friend Mini, who was born October 21, 1977,
lives in Banglore, Karnataka.
5. Used to separate coordinate adjectives.
 Jolly is a cheerful, kind girl.
6. Used before a quotation.
 He said, "It is going to rain today."

Story of how comma killed someone

 Hang him, not let him free.
 Hang him not, let him free.
3. Semicolon (;)
A semicolon indicates a pause greater than a comma.
1. It is used when two independent clauses in a
sentence are not connected by a coordinating
conjunction like "and, but, yet, so, etc.
 You should stop eating so much food; you will
have to go on a diet.
2. Used in between independent clauses that are
connected by any of the following transitional
words or phrases: accordingly, for example, for
instance, furthermore, however, instead,
moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, etc.
 You need new brakes; otherwise, you may not be
able to stop in time.
3. Used to separate items in a complex list.
 You can order a sandwich with bacon, egg, and
cheese; ham, egg, tomato, and cheese; or tomato,
lettuce, and avocado.
4. Colon (:)
Uses of colon
1. A colon is used to set off a list that is preceded by
a complete independent clause
 We have several favourite genres of movies: crime
thriller, science fiction, and mystery.
2. Used to separate two independent clauses.
 Never forget this point: think before you speak.
3. Used to divide hours from minutes.
 I have an appointment with the doctor at 10:30
am tomorrow.
4. Used to introduce direct quotations.
 This was first said by Shakespeare: "To thine own
self be true."
5. Apostrophe (')
Uses of apostrophe
1. Used to indicate omission of letter or letters in a
contraction.
 I don't think she will win the election.
2. Used to show possession.
 These are Nivin's books.
Rewrite the following passage using proper
punctuations and capitalization.
Kerala also known as Gods Own Country is a beautiful
state in India Its famous for its lush green landscapes
backwaters, and stunning beaches. kerala is rich in
cultural heritage and has a vibrant tradition of art,
music, and dance
 Module 2
Unit 1

Articles
The, a, an -> Small but very important
Articles are used before nouns or noun equivalents
1. The → Definite article"
 It is used to refer Specific on particular nouns.
 Dr. Rahul is one of the famous doctor in kattoor
hospital.
Then Call the doctor meena said.

2. A/An → Indefinite article

 It is used to modify or non-specific or non-particular
nouns.
 My daughter really wants a book.
 Ramya needs an ice cream.
Remember using A or An depends on the sound that begins
the next word.

Singular noun beginning

with consonant then use Singular noun beginning
“a” with vowel, then use
Consonants – k, p, b, m, l, d “an”
,u etc. Vowels – a, e, I, o, u
Car – a car An apple
Bike – a bike An orphan
Dog – a dog An ice cream
Boy – a boy
 Vowel letter but Consonant letter but
pronounced like pronounced like with
consonant sound, then vowel sound. Then use
use “a” “an”

University Hour

Vowel letter but Consonant letter but

consonant sound vowel sound

An university A hour

A University An hour

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

 Count nouns are either singular (one) or plural (more
than one).
 Non count nouns are always in singular form.
 The can be used with non-count nouns, or the article
can be omitted entirely.

 "I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of

water)
 Or "I love to sail over water" (any water).
  "He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific
milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day)
 "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk).

"A/an" Can be used only with count nouns

 "I need a bottle of water."
 "I need a new glass of milk."

Geographical Use of The

Do not use 'the' before:
 Names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico,
Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the Dominican
Republic, the Philippines, the United States
 Names of cities, towns, or states: Seoul, Manitoba,
Miami
 Names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St.
 Names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie cept
with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes.
Names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except
with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies
or unusual names like the Matterhorn
 Names of continents (Asia, Europe)
 Names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except
with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or
the Canary Islands
 Do use the before:

 Names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific

 Points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole
 Geographical areas: the Middle East, the West
 Deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara, the
Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula

Omission of Articles
 Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English,
Spanish, and Russian (unless you are referring to the
population of the nation: "The Spanish are known for
their warm hospitality.")
 Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball
 Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology,
history, computer science.
 Module 2
Unit 2

Prepositions
A preposition is a word or group of words that is placed
before a noun or a pronoun to show their relationship
with other words in a sentence.

Above, across, against, along, among, around, at, before,

behind, below, beneath, beside, between, by, down, from,
in, into, near, of, off, on, to, toward, under, upon, with and
within etc.

Prepositions with two or more words are called

compound prepositions.Ex:- Due to, in front
of etc.
Types of prepositions
1. Prepositions of Time:
Prepositions of time show the relationship of time
between the nouns to the other parts of a sentence.
On, at, in, from, to, for, since, ago, before, till/until, by,
etc. are the most common prepositions of time.
Example:
They started working at 11 AM
The director board met on 25 October.
There are holidays in August.
Leila has been ill since Monday.

Prepositions Time Nature

IN  Months or years:-
In February, In 2005
 Particular time of a day
or month or year:-
In the evening, in
summer, in the second
week of July
 A Century or a specific
time in Past or future:-
In stone age, in 18th
century

ON  Day
On Monday, Friday
 Dates
On 7th of April
 Particular Dates
On my birthday
 AT  Times of a clock
At 11 ‘o clock
 Short and precise time
At noon, at night, at
bedtime

2. Prepositions of Place and Direction:

Prepositions of place show the relationship of place

between the nouns to the other parts of a sentence
On, at, in, into, by, from, to, towards, up, down,
across, between, among, though, behind, above,
over, under, below etc. are the most common
prepositions of place/ direction.

Example:
 She is at School.
 He came from China.
 The police broke into the house.
 We live across the street.
 In is mostly used for a place having some sort
of physical or virtual boundary.
Eg: In a hall, in the box, in India
On is usually used for a surface.
Eg: On the table, on a map, on a page
At is usually used for a specific place.
Eg: At the entrance, at the bottom of a glass, at
the edge

3. Prepositions of possession or purpose

These are the wishes of the people.
(Here, the preposition "of" shows possession.)
It is a device for opening jars.
(Here, the preposition "for" shows purpose.)

Phrasal Prepositions
A phrasal preposition is not a prepositional
phrase, but they are a combination of two or
more words which functions as a preposition

Along with, apart from, because of,

by means of, according to, in front of,
contrary to, in spite of, on account of,
in reference to, in addition to, in
regard to, instead of, on top of, out
of, with regard to, etc.
 Example:
They along with their children went to Atlanta.
According to the new rules, you are not right.
In spite of being a good player, he was not
selected.
I'm going out of the city.
 Module 2
Unit 3

Tense Forms

A tense is a form of verb which shows the time at which an action

happens.

Tenses
Past tense Present tense Future tense
Simple past Simple present Simple future
Past continuous Present continuous Future
continuous
Past perfect Present perfect Future perfect
Past perfect Present Perfect Future perfect
continuous continuous continuous

1. Simple Present
Sub + V +s/es (do/does) + object
Uses:-
a. Things in general - I usually go home on Sundays
b. Habitual actions - He gets up at 5’0 clock every
morning
c. Universal truth - The Earth is a planet.
2. Simple past
Sub + V2 +object
a. To indicate an action which started & completed in
the past
Rani gave me a present for my birthday.
We wrote a letter to him.
3. Simple Future
S + will/shall/going to
a. To make predictions.
Anil Said it will rain tomorrow
b. To ask questions about the Future
Will we find that?
c. To express Factual statement.
This expensive dress will cost us more money.
d. To consider future possibilities or conditions
If Meera fails in the test, her Parents will take away
her phone
We are going to buy a car
It is going to rain soon.
4. Present Continuous / Present Progressive
S+ am/is/are + verb + ing.
a. Temporary activities.
Rahul is learning to play the guitar.
b. Continuing action.
He is writing.
5. Past Perfect
S + had +V3
When we got to the theatre, the movie had started
So here are 2 actions.
1st action → had + V3 (past perfect)
2nd action simple past→ Simple past →V2
The boy looked very familiar, I had seen him
somewhere before.
6. Present perfect
S + have/has+ V3
Subject plural – I, you, they, we – have
Subject singular – he, she, and it - has
a. Experience (alive)
Rahal has visited America two times.
b. Recent actions or events
I have finished my homework
7. Present Perfect continuous
S + has/have + been + verb + ing
I have been waiting to see you for two hours.
 Module 2
Unit 4
Direct & Indirect Speech

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Actual words are quoted
Enclosed in inverted commas
Ex: - She said to me “I am
playing”
Actual words are transformed
and not enclosed in inverted
commas
Ex: - She said to me that she
was playing.

Subject &Object Concepts Tense forms

1st person
2nd person
3rd person
Arjun and Anu are in a café, and they're talking about
Lakshmi. Arjun says to Anu, "I'm telling you, Lakshmi is very
beautiful."
In the sentence,
 Arjun is speaking – so he is the first person.
 Anu is the second person because Arjun is addressing
her directly.
 Lakshmi is the third person because Arjun is talking
about her, but not directly addressing her.
The first person refers to the speaker
The second person refers to the person being spoken to
The third person refers to someone or something being
talked about.
 Subject – Appu said to John
Person doing the action
 Object – Appu said to John
Person in receiving end

Present Tense
1. Simple present to Simple past
I like ice-cream She said that she liked ice cream
2. Present continuous to past continuous
I am living in London She said that she was living
in London
3. Present perfect to Past perfect
I haven’t seen Anu She said that she hadn’t seen
Anu.
 Past Tense
4. Simple past to past perfect
I bought a car She said that she had bought a
car
5. Past continuous to Past perfect continuous
I was walking She said that she had been
walking
6. Past perfect to No change
I had taken English lessons before She said that
she had taken English lessons before

Future tense
 Will / shall – would /should
Can /may – could /might
Ex- I’ll see you later
She said that she would see me later

 I, we, me, mine, us, ours – he, she, they, his, her
 Raju told Anu “I love you”
Raju told Anu that he loved her.
 now then / at that time

today yesterday / that day

yesterday the day before yesterday / the day

before

last night the night before

last week the week before / the previous

week

tomorrow today / the next day / the following

day

this that

these those

here there

now then

When a yes /no question is reported, the reporting

verb say changed to ask.
Sheela said to me, “Can I take it?”
Sheela asked me if she could take it.
Wh questions – Question word remains but it comes
before the subject
John said “Where are you going?”
John asked me where I was going.
Commands and requests
The verb usually are :-
advice,request,command,beg,order,remind,tell,warn
etc.
He told me, “Please take me to the hospital.”
He requested me to take him to the hospital.

The principle said “Don’t go outside”

The principle ordered not to go outside.

Exclamatory sentence
Verb say or tell changed in to exclaim, cry out, or pray
according to the context.
Arjun said “Anu is very beautiful girl!”
Arjun exclaimed that Anu was very beautiful girl.
 Module 2
Unit 5

Active & Passive voice

Active voice
Subject Action Object
I love my students
S+V+O

Passive voice
Object Action Subject
My students are loved by me
O + V3 + by + S

Five steps
1. Identify S,O,V
2. Swap S & O
3. Convert V to V3
4. Add helping verb before main verb
5. Add “By” before S
Points to remember
 I Me
 He Him
 She Her
 We Us
 They Them

1. Simple present
Active voice - Write / writes
Passive voice – is /am/are + written (v3)
Ex – She writes a letter
Letter is written by her
2. Present continuous
Active voice – is /am/are writing
Passive voice – is /am/are + being + written (v3)
Ex - She is writing a letter
Letter is being written by her
3. Present perfect
Active voice – Have/has + written
Passive voice – Have/has + been + written
Ex – They have written a letter
Letter have been written by them
4. Simple past
Active voice – Wrote
Passive voice – was/were written
Ex – She wrote a letter
Letter was written by her
5. Past continuous
Active voice – was /were + writing
Passive voice – was/were + been + writing
Ex – She was writing a letter
Letter was been writing by her
6. Past perfect
Active voice – had written
Passive voice – had been written
Ex- She had written a letter
Letter had been written by her
7. Simple Future
Active voice – will write
Passive voice – will be written
Ex – She will write a letter
Letter will be written by her
8. Future perfect
Active voice – will have written
Passive voice – will have been written
Ex – They will has written a letter
Letter will have been written by them.